X~ Now if your comrades are planning to go from the / king's apartments to some drinkin^Jioiit or other merry-
making^ and you, too, [have the king's permission to ?
seek diversion^Jyou should jgrejer_the forms of amuse- x
ment which I shall now point out to you. If you are so-
journing where horses may be ridden and you have your
own horse, put on heavy armor and, mounting your
horse, {train ^yourself in the art of sitting on horseback (/
_in the firmest and most handsome manner jTrain your-->
self to press the foot firmly into the stirrup; keep your
leg stiff and the heel a little lower than the toes, except
when you have to guard against thrusts from the front;
THE KING'S MIRROR
AC
/ ut
and practice sitting firmly with the thighs pressed close.
Cover your breast and limbs carefully with a curved
shield. Train your left hand to grasp firmly the bridle
and the grip of the shield, and your right hand to direct
the spear-thrust so that all your bodily strength will
support it. Train your good steed to veer about when
in full gallop; keep him clean and in good condition;
keep him shod firmly and well, and provide him with a
strong and handsome harness.
But if you are in a borough or some such place_where
horses cannot be used for recreation, you should take
up this form of amusement: go to your chambers and
put on heavy armor; next look up some fellow hench-
man (he may be a native or an alien) who likes to drill
with you and whom you know to be well trained to
fight behind a shield or a buckler. Always bring heavy
armor to this exercise, either chain-mail or a thick gam-
ison,* and carry a heavy sword and a weighty shield
or buckler in your hand. [in this game you should strive
to learn suitable thrusts and such counterstrokes JLS_ are
good, necessary, and convenientJLearn precisely how
to cover yourself with the shield, so that you may be
able to guard well when you have to deal with a foeman.
If you feel that it is important to be well trained in these
activities, go through the exercise twice a day, if it is
convenient; but let no day pass, except holidays, with-
out practicing this drill at least once;[for it is counted
* The gambison (panzari) was a form of defensive armor made of cloth
padded and quilted. It is described on page 217 as being made " of soft linen
thoroughly blackened." Usually it was worn under the coat of mail, but it
could also be worn outside. See Annalerfor nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 74 ff.
(Blom.); Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 181-182.
THE KING'S MIRROR 213
proper for all kingsmen to master this art and, more- 7
bver, it must be mastered if it is to be of servicejlf the -5
drill tires you and makes you thirsty, drink a little now
and then, enough to quench your thirst; but while the
game is on, be careful not to drink till you are drunk or
even merry.
If you should like to try a variety of drills and pas-
times, there are certain sports that one can take up out
of doors, if that is thought more diverting. For one
thing, you may have a pole prepared, somewhat heavier
than a spear shaft, and put up a mark some distance
away for a target; with these you can determine how far
and how accurately you can throw a spear and do it effec- J cc /
tively. It is also counted rare sport and pastime to take N ~^f> i
one's bow and go with other men to practice archery. /
Another pleasant and useful diversion is to practice
throwing with a sling both for distance and for accuracy,
and with a staff sling * as well as with a hand sling, and
to practice throwing stone missiles. Formerly the cus-
tom was for all who wished to become expert in such
arts and thoroughly proficient in war and chivalry to /
train both hands alike to the use of weapons. Strive
after the same skill, if you find yourself gifted for it, /
inasmuch as those who are trained in that way are the /
most perfect in these activities and the most dangerous /
to their enemies.
You should abhor and avoid manslaying in every
form except as a lawful punishment or in common war-
fare. But in ordinary warfare on the lawful command
* The staff sling was a sling fastened to the end of a stick; it was an earlier
form which was not used much in the thirteenth century.
214 THE KING'S MIRROR
of your chief, you need to shun manslaying no more
than any other deed which you know to be right and
good. Show courage and bravery in battle; fight with
proper and effective blows, such as you have already
learned, as if in the best of humor, though filled with
noble wrath. Never fight with feigned strokes, needless
thrusts, or uncertain shots like a frightened man. Heed
these things well that you may be able to match your
opponent's skill in fighting. Be resolute in combat but
not hot-headed and least of all boastful. Always re-
member that there may be those who can give good
testimony in your behalf: but never praise vonr own
deeds, lest after a time it should come to piass that jrou
are pursued for the slaughter of men whose death js^
\ rated a great loss and the revenge is directed toward
you by your ownjords.
If you are fighting on foot in a land battle and are
placed at the point of a wedge-shaped column,* it is
very important to watch the closed shield line in the
first onset, lest it become disarranged or broken. Take
heed never to bind the front edge of your shield under
that of another, f You must also be specially careful,
when in the battle line, never to throw your spear, un-
less you have two, for in battle array on land one spear
is more effective than two swords. But if the fight is on
shipboard, select two spears which are not to be thrown,
one with a shaft long enough to reach easily from ship
baped column (jtfc^yOaif , perhaps so named from a fancied
; to a boar's head) was a common form of battle array among the
Northern peoples as wd as among the early Germans generally.
t As the shield was bora on the kft arm, the front edge would be the right
THE KING'S MIRROR 215
to ship and one with a shorter shaft, which you will find
particularly serviceable when you try to board the
enemy's ship. Various kinds of darts should be kept on
ships, both heavy javelins and lighter ones. Try to
strike your opponent's shield with a heavy javelin, and
if the shield glides aside, attack him with a light javelin,
unless you are able to reach him with a long-shafted
spear. Fight on sea as on land with an even temper and
with proper strokes only; and never waste_yoiir weapons
by hurling them to no purpose.
Weapons of many sorts may be used to advantage on
shipboard, which one has no occasion to use on land,
except in a fortress or castle. Longhandled scythes * and
long-shafted broadaxes,t " war-beams " and staff slings,
darts, { and missiles of every sort are serviceable on
ships. Crossbows and longbows are useful as well as all
other forms of shooting weapons; but coal and sulphur
are, however, the most effective munitions of all that I
have named. Caltrops ; cast in lead and good halberds ^
are also effective weapons on shipboard. A tower joined
* These scythes were apparently used to catch and hold the 1
perhaps also to cot the ropes on the ship. See the Soro etfition,
t The broadai (tfajfux) had the blade extended backward somewhat like
d^ffaUicri.tlM^mthefcfercMetheafaMmMdbJnHt
See Falk, Ataordudte Wa/emtmmde, 108-110.
I Skfpti/UUa: a dart of some sort with a cord attached.
Coal and suphur seem to have been used chiefly to fire the enemy's ship.
|| Caltrops were instruments provided with iron prongs and were usually
scattered where the enemy's horsemen were likely to pass, in the hope of
manning the horses. It is evident that they were also used in naval warfare,
the purpose being to maim the men on the enemy's deck. See the Soro edition.
f Aigwr. The translation is doubtful but it seems dear that some kind of
spear useful for striking as wcfl as for thrusting is meant. See Falk,
dixke Wtfemtnie, 81-OL
216 THE KING'S MIRROR
to the mast * will be serviceable along with these and
many other defenses, as is also a beam cloven into four
parts and set with prongs of hard steel, f which is drawn
up against the mast. A " prow-boar" J with an ironclad
snout is also useful in naval battles. But it is well for
men to be carefully trained in handling these before
they have to use them; for one knows neither the time
nor the hour when he shall have to make use of any
particular kind of weapons. But take good heed to col-
lect as many types of weapons as possible, while you
still have no need of them; for it is always a distinction
to have good weapons, and, furthermore, they are a
good possession in times of necessity when one has to
use them. For a ship's defense the following arrange-
ment is necessary: it should be fortified strongly with
beams and logs built up into a high rampart, through
which there should be four openings, each so large and
wide that one or two men in full armor can leap through
them; but outside and along the rampart on both sides
of the ship there should he laid a level walk of planks
to stand upon. This breastwork must be firmly and
* Probably some sort of a cage placed at the top or near the top of the mast
from which men with bows and slings could fight to better advantage. See
Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1872, 242; Falk, Altnordische Waffen-
kunde, 197.
t Only one end of the beam was cloven in this way. See the Sorb edition, 394-
395. The beam was apparently fastened to the mast and used to crush the
sides of the enemy's ship in much the same way as the ram was used against
a castle wall. See Talk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 199.
J The prow-boar (rdftrgoltr) was not a beak but apparently some device
fastened to the prow which served much the same purpose, namely to run
down and sink an opposing ship. See the Soro edition, 395-396; Falk, Altnor-
dische Waffenkunde, 198-199.
See the Soro edition, 397-399; Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 196. This
rampart was built of logs and planks and raised on the gunwales. Sometimes
THE KING'S MIRROR
carefully braced so that it cannot be shaken though
one leaps violently upon it. Wide shields and chain mail
of every sort are good defensive weapons on shipboard;
the chief protection, however, is the gambison made of
soft linen thoroughly blackened, good helmets, and low
caps of steel. There are many other weapons that can
be used in naval fights, but it seems needless to discuss
more than those which I have now enumerated.
XXXVIII
WEAPONS FOR OFFENSE AND DEFENSE
Son. Since we now have before us a discussion which
teaches chiefly how a man must prepare himself to meet
his enemies in attack and defense, it seems to me that
it would be well to say something about how one has
to fight on land, on horse or on foot, and in attacking
and defending castles. Therefore, if you feel disposed
to say anything about such matters, I shall be glad to
listen.
Father. The man who is to fight on horseback needs
to make sure, as we have already stated, that he is
thoroughly trained in all the arts of mounted warfare.
For his horse he will need to provide this equipment: *
he must keep him carefully and firmly shod; he must
also make sure that the saddle is strong, made with high
bows, and provided with strong girths and other saddle-
it seems to have been placed along the entire length of the ship, but often,
perhaps, only where the ship was lowest. Inside it was braced with strong
beams. The plank walk on the outside projected over the edge of the ship and
was no doubt in part intended to make it difficult for the enemy to board it.
* On the equipment of the horse in medieval warfare, see Aarbogerfor nordisk
Oldkyndighed, 1867, 90-97.
218 THE KING'S MIRROR
gear, including a durable surcingle across the middle
and a breast strap in front.* The horse should be pro-
tected in such a way both in front of the saddle and be-
hind it that he will not be exposed to weapons, spear
thrust or stroke, or any other form of attack. He should
also have a good shabrack f made like a gambison of
soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth, for this is a
good protection against all kinds of weapons. It may be
decorated as one likes, and over the shabrack there
should be a good harness of mail. With this equipment
every part of the horse should be covered, head, loins,
breast, belly, and the entire beast, so that no man, even if
on foot, shall be able to reach him with deadly weapons.
The horse should have a strong bridle, one that can be
gripped firmly and used to rein him in or throw him when
necessary. Over the bridle and about the entire head of
the horse and around the neck back to the saddle, there
should be a harness made like a gambison of firm linen
cloth, so that no man shall be able to take away the
bridle or the horse by stealth. t
* In the thirteenth century the saddle was made with high bows before and
behind so as to provide a firmer seat for the rider. The surcingle was a girth
drawn over the saddle; the breast strap served to keep the saddle from slip-
ping backwards. Aarboger for nor disk Oldkyndighed, 91.
f Kovertur, from medieval French couverture. But the couverture was not a
covering worn underneath, the mail; it was probably the mail itself or an
outer covering for the horse. See Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 191.
J Falk believes that this description is in some respects inaccurate. No such
elaborate equipment could have been used in the North where cavalry was
not an important part of the host in the thirteenth century. He also doubts
that an equipment just like the one described was in use anywhere in Europe
at the time. Ibid., 190-191. The medieval couverture was not placed beneath
the covering of mail as the Speculum Regale states; and Falk can see no
reason why a gambison placed beneath the mail should be ornamented.
It seems clear that the author is somewhat confused as to these various
coverings.
THE KING'S MIRROR
The rider himself should be equipped in this wise:
he should wear good soft breeches made of soft and
thoroughly blackened linen cloth, which should reach
up to the belt; outside these, good mail hose* which
should come up high enough to be girded on with a
double strap; over these he must have good trousers
made of linen cloth of the sort that I have already
described ; finally, over these he should have good knee-
pieces made of thick iron and rivets hard as steel. f Above
and next to the body he should wear a soft gambison,
which need not come lower than to the middle of the
thigh. Over this he must have a strong breastplate {
made of good iron covering the body from the nipples to
the trousers belt ; outside this, a well-made hauberk and
over the hauberk a firm gambison made in the manner
which I have already described but without sleeves. He
must have a dirk and two swords, one girded on and
another hanging from the pommel of the saddle. On his
head he must have a dependable helmet made of good
steel and provided with a visor. || He must also have a
strong, thick shield fastened to a durable shoulder belt
and, in addition, a good sharp spear with a firm shaft
and pointed with fine steel. Now it seems needless to
* The mail hose were made of chain mail. Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed,
1867, 73-74.
f The kneepieces> or genouilleres were pieces of armor worn to protect the
knees.
t Blom thinks that the breastplate was a new thing in the thirteenth century
(ibid., 76), but Falk believes that it was used quite generally (Altnordische
Wqffenkunde, 182).
The dirk (brynknifr) was probably a poniard-like weapon used to pierce the
chain mail at the joints. Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 124.
1 1 The helmet with the visor appears in the illustrations of the closing years of
the twelfth century; the earlier helmet was a steel cap with a nose guard.
Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, 83-84.
220 THE KING'S MIRROR
speak further about the equipment of men who fight
on horseback; there are, however, other weapons which
a mounted warrior may use, if he wishes; among these
are the " horn bow " * and the weaker crossbow, which
a man can easily draw even when on horseback, and
certain other weapons, too, if he should want them.
XXXIX
MILITARY ENGINES
Son. Inasmuch as you seem to think that you have
described most of the weapons which are convenient to
have in naval warfare or in fighting on horseback, I will
now ask you to say something about those which you
think are most effective in besieging or defending castles.
Father. All the weapons that we have just discussed
as useful on ships or on horseback can also be used in
attacking and defending castles; but there are many
other kinds. If one is to attack a castle with the weapons
which I have enumerated, he will also have need of
trebuckets : f a few powerful ones with which to throw
large rocks against stone walls to determine whether
they are able to resist such violent blows, and weaker
trebuckets for throwing missiles over the walls to de-
molish the houses within the castle. But if one is unable
to break down or shatter a stone wall with trebuckets,
* Little seems to be known about the hornbow. Captain Blom finds it men-
tioned in the Latin sources as balista cornea or balista cum cornu. Aarbogerfor
nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 100-101. Falk believes that it was a bow which
was reinforced on the inner side with horn. Altnordische Waffenkunde, 91-92.
f The trebucket (French trebuchef) was a siege engine which came into use in
the twelfth century; it was worked by counterpoises. For a description see
Oman, Art of War, 143-144; Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 103-
104; Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 193-194.
THE KING'S MIRROR
he will have to try another engine, namely the iron-
headed ram,* for very few stone walls can withstand
its attack. If this engine fails to batter down or shake
the wall, it may be advisable to set the cat f to work.
A tower raised on wheels J is useful in besieging castles,
if it is constructed so that it rises above the wall which
is to be stormed, even though the difference in height
be only seven ells; but the higher it is, the more effective
it will be in attacking another tower. Scaling ladders on
wheels which may be moved backward and forward are
also useful for this purpose, if they are boarded up un-
derneath and have good ropes on both sides. And we
may say briefly about this craft, that in besieging castles
use will be found for all sorts of military engines. But
whoever wishes to join in this must be sure that he
knows precisely even to the very hour when he shall
have need for each device.
Those who have to defend a castle may also make use
of these weapons which I have now enumerated and
many more: trebuckets both large and small, hand
slings and staff slings. They will find crossbows and
other bows, too, very effective, as well as every other
* The ram was a massive beam used to batter down walls; it was an in-
heritance from antiquity and was much in use. See Oman, Art of War, 132;
Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 104; Falk, Altnordische Waffen-
kunde, 198.
f Grafsvin. Falk translates this with " badger " and seems to believe that it
was a shelter on wheels under which the attackers might work in compara-
tive safety. Altnordische Waffenkunde, 196. It is more likely, however, that a
"cat" is meant. The cat was a long pointed pole used to loosen the stones in
a wall and thus to make a breach. It is also called a " sow " and the Old Norse
term grafsvin, " digging boar," was evidently an attempt to translate the
Latin term scrofa or sus, " hog " or " sow." For a description of the cat, see
Oman, Art of War, 132.
t On the subject of the movable tower see Oman, Art of War, 134-135, 549.
222 THE KING'S MIRROR
type of shooting weapons, such as spears and javelins
both light and heavy. But to resist the trebuckets,
the cat, and the engine called the ram, it is well to
strengthen the entire stone wall on the inside with
large oaken timbers; though if earth and clay are plen-
tiful, these materials had better be used. Those who
have to defend castles are also in the habit of making
curtains of large oak boughs, three or even five deep,
to cover the entire wall; * and the curtain should be
thoroughly plastered with good sticky clay. To defeat
the attacks of the ram, men have sometimes filled large
bags with hay or straw and lowered them with light
iron chains in front of the ram where it sought to pierce
the wall. It sometimes happens that the shots fall so
rapidly upon a fortress that the defenders are unable
to remain at the battlements; it is then advisable to
hang out brattices made of light planks and built high
enough to reach two ells above the openings in the para-
pet and three ells below them. They should be wide
enough to enable the men to fight with any sort of
weapons between the parapet and the brattice wall, and
they should be hung from slender beams in such a way
that they may be readily drawn in and hung out again
later, as one may wish.f
The " hedgehog " { will be found an effective device
* These curtains were evidently placed on the outer side of the wall,
f This translation of hengirigskarft is based on Blom's interpretation (Aar-
bogerfor nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 105-106, note). The brattices were pro-
jecting galleries built along the top of the wall and were in use before it be-
came customary to build stone parapets. Cf. Oman, Art of War, 534.
t The hedgehog (ericius) in common use was a form of the cheval defrise and
was laid on the earth to impede a hostile advance. -I know of no other men-
tion of the device (igulkottr) described above.
THE KING'S MIRROR 223
in defending a castle. It is made of large, heavy beams
armed along the ridge with a brush of pointed oak nails ;
it is hung outside the parapet to be dropped on anyone
who comes too near the wall. Turnpikes made of large
heavy logs armed with sharp teeth of hard oak may be
raised on end near the battlements and kept ready to
be dropped upon those who approach the castle. An-
other good device is the " briar," * which is made of
good iron and has curved thorns as hard as steel with
a barb on every thorn; and the chain, from which it
hangs, as high up as a man can reach must be made of
spiked links, so that it can be neither held nor hewn;
higher up any kind of rope that seems suitable may be
used, only, it must be firm and strong. This briar is
thrown down among the enemy in the hope of catching
one or more of them and then it is pulled up again. A
" running wheel " f is also a good weapon for those who
defend castles: it is made of two millstones with an
axle of tough oak joining them. Planks sloping down-
ward are laid out through the openings in the wall; the
wheel is rolled out upon these and then down upon the
enemy.
A " shot wagon " {is also a good device. This is made
like any other wagon with two or four wheels as one
likes and is intended to carry a load of stones, hot or
* Captain Blom is disposed to look on the brynklungr as an imaginary device
(Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1867, 106) but Falk finds that some such
instrument was in use in Italy as early as the tenth century (Altnordische
Waffenkunde, 199-200).
t Devices somewhat similar to the " running wheel " seem to have been used
in medieval warfare, but of this particular form no other mention has been
found. See Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde, 200.
% Ibid. The " shot wagon " is not mentioned elsewhere.
THE KING'S MIRROR
cold as one may prefer. It must also be provided with
two firm and strong chains, one on each side, which can
be depended on to check the wagon even where it has
a long track to run upon. It is meant to run on planks
set with a downward slope, but one must be careful to
keep the wheels from skidding off the planks. When the
chains check the speed, the wagon shoots its load out
upon the men below. The more uneven the stones are,
some large and some small, the more effective the load
will be. Canny men, who are set to defend a wall and
wish to throw rocks down upon the attacking line or
upon the penthouse, make these rocks of clay with
pebbles, slingstones, and other hard stones placed in-
side. The clay is burned hard enough on the outside to
endure the flight while the load is being thrown; but as
soon as the rocks fall they break into fragments and
consequently cannot be hurled back again. To break
down stone walls, however, large, hard rocks are re-
quired. Similarly, when one hurls missiles from a stone
fortress against an opposing wooden tower or upon the
axletrees which support siege engines, towers, scaling
ladders, cats, or any other engine on wheels, the larger
and harder the rocks that are used, the more effective
they will be.
Boiling water, molten glass, and molten lead are also
useful in defending walls.* But if a cat or any other
covered engine which cannot be damaged by hot water
is being pushed toward a castle, it is a good plan, if the
engine is lower than the walls, to provide beams care-
* See the Soro edition, 424-425, where the editor cites a number of references
to the use of fire in defensive warfare; these are nearly all drawn from the
THE KING'S MIRROR
fully shod with iron underneath and in addition armed
with large, sharp, red-hot plowshares. These are to be
thrown down upon the wooden engine in which the
plowshares are likely to stick fast, while the beams may
be hoisted up again. This attack should be followed up
with pitch, sulphur, or boiling tar.*
Mines dug in the neighborhood of a castle are also
an excellent protection; the deeper and narrower they
are, the better it is; and where men are shoving mounted
engines toward the walls, it were well if there were many
mines. All mines should have a number of small open-
ings, which must be covered so as not to be visible on the
surface. They should be filled with fuel of the most in-
flammable sort, peat or anything else that burns readily.
When a castle is attacked at night either from wooden
towers or with scaling ladders or any other engine on
wheels, the defenders should steal out and fire the
mines, f
Now if it should happen that the enemy's stones
come over the battlements with such violence that the
men cannot remain in the open to defend the wall, it is
a good plan to set up strong posts cut from thick oak
and to lay large and tough cross beams upon these,
then to roof the whole over with firm oak timbers, and
finally to cover the roofing with a layer of earth not less
than three or four ells in depth, upon which the rocks
may be allowed to drop.J In like manner the attack of
* Evidently the purpose would be to crush the engine with the beam, to set it
on fire with the hot plowshares, and to put the assailants to flight with the
pitch, sulphur, or tar; these would also feed the flames.
t On the subject of mines see Oman, Art of War, 549-550.
J The posts were apparently placed on top of the wall, the purpose being to
raise the wall to a greater height as well as to furnish shelter for the defenders.
226 THE KING'S MIRROR
a wooden tower that is moving toward a castle may be
foiled by setting up strong, firm posts rising consider-
ably higher than the attacking tower. But a more effec-
tive contrivance than all the engines that I have now
described is a stooping shield-giant which breathes forth
flame and fire.* And now we shall close our account of
the engines that are useful in defending castle walls with
the reminder that every sort of weapon with which one
can shoot, hurl, hew, or thrust, and every kind that
can be used in attack or defense may be brought into service.
Civis
Spears
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