Research thread: Imperial Roman Army
Imperial Roman Army:
Roman Army of the Principate, 27AD - 117AD
Introduction
The Augustan army of the Principate was perhaps the most powerful army ever created by the Romans. It was made by Augustus so that generals did not need to raise levies all the time, and create a professional system from where troops could serve the military as an career, not an voluntary occupation role. Military service was now an lifetime occupation, pay and service were also decided on the status of their role in the army. It borrowed heavily from the Marian reforms and the dead principles of the Republican armies. One of the things that made it different from its predecessors was that it aimed to go more professional than rather depending on certain formations or raising levies.
Three Sub Categories of the Roman Army at this time:
Praetorians
Legions
Auxiliaries
Service:
25 years
16 for Praetorians
Loyalty was now to the Empire and its Emperors, the commander in chief, neither to the Senate or the People of Rome, men also were sometimes retrained longer. At the end of service there would be a fixed reward depending on the solider's bravery and loyalty. Of course before the reforms there was a debate between the Roman Generals Agrippa and Maceanus, Maceasnus arguing to conscript soldiers and enlist them for short periods, while Agrippa arguging that an standard army was needed if Rome was to over come her enemies.
Another thing that Augustus did after his campaign in Gaul, he ordained that terms of service in the legions had to be 16, and a four year service where they would be an veteran core, and be paid around a fixed cash sum, though a plot of land to be given to them. Think of Asterix's and you'll know what I mean. I will not dwell on this much further as my focus is now on the organization and tactics. This stuff however, will be finished off.
Organization and tactics:
The Legions of course, after the Marian reforms, and carried on forward from the Augustan reforms, had the poorest citizens in their ranks, those who found that serving in the army would provide them food under their bellies, a house and gaining some glory and respect, there was also the chance of looting and plundering as such. It was more secure than say a labourer's life or an slave. He also enjoyed an much abnormal superiority over the other citizens. Of course there was the chance of dying in battle or getting disease, but had to endure harsh and brutal training. Yet to many other citizens and such, the life of the well organized Roman solider with his well built camp was more comfortable off than say an slave.
From Augutus onwards, 25 new legions were to be commanded and created by him. It was soon to be 28 after the disaster of Tuetoberg forest. Legions were now 5000 strong from all ranks, composing of Roman citizens, mostly volunteers and especially drawn from the North of Italy, including many provinces of the Roman Empire. As the 1st century progressed, many recruits came from Iberia, Gaul, Narberium, Noricum, Eastern provinces of the Greek city states and Macedonia. Hence, the Legion X Macedonia. This was done as the Romans were constantly at war and they needed troops at the ready to combat them.
They were indeed trained to be professional killers as well as being skilled craftsmen and tradesmen, they were also self sufficient. The possibilityof war made it possible for those either wanting to be in the army, or those that were forced into the Roman war to make an career out of it. As the permanent legions became settled in their regions, their armour would have differed including the ethnicity. An legion in Germania for example in the 1st or 2nd century AD, would be different than an legion in Syria including arms and equipment.
It should also note that when the reforms came, though not in my opinion an proper fact, it is said that Augustus had the legions recruited from the borders, instead of Italy as the man power would have been exhausted by then from so many countless wars.
The List of Legions at the borders of AD 80 for the player to recruit when he reaches this stage:
1) Legio IX Hispana - recruitable in Britian, at York.
2) Legiones XX Valeria and II Adiutrik - recruitable at Britian
3) Legio II Augusta- recruitable in Caerleon
4) Legiones XXII Primiegenia and X Gemina - recruitable at Belgium/Gaul
5) Legio VI Victrix at Neuss - recruitable at Rhine
6) Legio XXI Rapax at Bonn - recruitable in Germania
7) Legio XIV Gemina at Mainz - recruitable in Germania
8) Legio I Adiutrix - recruitable in Germania
9) Legio VIII Augusta at Strausbourg - recruitable Belgium/Germania
10) Lego XI Claduia at Windish - recruitable Alps/Switzerland
11) Legio XV Apollinaris at Carnuntum - recruitable at Norcium
12) Legio XIII Gemina at Poetovio - recruitable in the Balkans
13) Legio Claudia at Viminaicum - recruitable in Dacia/Balkans
14) Legio V Macedonia at Oescus - recruitable in Macedonia
15) Legio I Italica at Novae - recruitable in Dacia/Thrace
16)Legio V Aluadae near Danube - recruitable in Danube
17) Legio Legio IX Flavia Firma at Burnum - recruitable in Illyria
18) Legio XVI FLavia Firma at Satala - recruitable in the north of Turkey, bordeiring Armenia
19) Legio XII Fulminata at Melitene - recruitable in Syria/Turkey
20) Legio VI Ferrata at Samosata - recruitable in Syria/Turkey
21) Legio IV Scythia at Cyrrhus - recruitable in Syria/Turkey
22) Legio III Gallica at Danabe near Damascus - recruitable in regions of Judea/Syria
23) Legio X Fretenesis at Jerusalem - recruitable in the province of Judea
24) Legio XXII Deiotariana at Alexandria - recruitable in Egypt
25) Legio III Cryenaica at Coptos near Luxor - recruit able in lower Egypt
26) Legio III Augusta at Ammaedara near Tebessa - recruitable in Mauretina/Africa
27) Legio VII Gemina at Leon - recruitable in Spain
Another recruitable unit should be made available in 197 AD , the Legio XXII Primigenia levied by the Emperor Calugia in 39 for his campagins in Germania
The way the legion was organized:
The first half of the principate involved the Legio ( that being our legion) to be divded into 10 cohortes. Including an small number of cavarly known as equites Legionis. The cavalry unit was used in special operations such as communication, e.g sending messages to the Roman camps or Roman commanders, think of Asterix, the legions always send an messenger to inform them where to find Asterix and Obelix. They were used to plan logistics and provide supply, and other non combatant activities as the Roman army of the principate mainly relied on auxiliary forces to provide mounted forces.
q33
Early Roman Principate Organisation for legio.
So each cohors was composed of six centuriae and each centuria comprised of 10 contubernia of eight men each that fought and trained together forming traditional bonds between them. If we apply this in theory, the strength of an Roman legion during this was period was about 4,800 men. An unit of 80 men, ( 10 contubernia of 8 men each) was called centuria ( latin word for an 100). Two additional men were allocated to each contubernium for non fighting duties, raising the total number to 100 ( 20 additional men per centuria). At some time probably at the beginning of the Flavian era, the first cohors or cohors prima was reorgnaized to include five centuriae of 20 contubernia each including the most veteran legionaries.
Late Principate Roman Legion.
In the battle the Legio followed the old traditions of the republic by using the same triplex acies, only using an slight adjustment. The legio now typically formed in four cohortes in front, two lines of three cohortes, each in a kind of check board pattern, even if it could use an two deployment at times.
Triplex Acies formation for the Legio of the Late principate.
Combat:
The Roman legions would first release their pila at the first chance, adopting this from their Celtic rivals. Then they would go and charge the enemy, witht eh main body of heavy infantry closing the gap and attacking the double. They then drew their swords and engaged the enemy. Emphasis was on usibng the shield to provide maximum body coverage, while attacking was exposed by the enemy. In the combat that ensured, the Roman discipline, heavy shield which would be used to thrust or block the enemy, chest armour provided protection and training to give them important advantages over their not so very well trained enemies.
The Roman legionnary on the battlefield could endure short periods of intense fighting. He could also count on tempoary relief, and he would also be able to recover on an short distance. It was very much like the Republican style of renewing the combat, if the Hastatii couldn't break the line, then the Principe came forward. Unlike Hollywood or video games which seem to portray endless violence going on for hours, these soliders would be supplied with reinforcements and would fight in an organized manner, instead of endless fighthing till death or injury So it would be very short periods of fighting. In some situations however, they would be fighting for hours as taken in the battles of Alesia and Teuotberg forest. The stamina and the willpower that had been instilled in the training the Roman legions demanded them to make many charges, to make one surge greater than before, and then as the sides broke down, the greatest slaugther would begin.
War Machines/Covering fire:
Roman battles during the late Empire were fought with avaible fire from Ballistas and Onagers ( think of the Gladiator scene) it is indeed possible that many did come to battle, but it is also possible that not all Romans battles would have had artierlly, especially in regions such as far north of Germania and the deserts of Parthia. It is questionable whether they had much impact, but I believe as long as the enemy were close to the dense formation of the Roman legions, it would have made very good impact. While the barrage continued, the Roman legions would walk in 30 metres of the Roman legiosn, launch their pilla and charge. This would be the key to many Roman victories. Another tactic was to draw the enemy with fire and feigned charges in order to give them the sense of attacking, by auxiliary equites( cavarly), once drawn in, they would be ambushed by Roman infantry and cavalry.
An legion consisted off:
Legion: 4800 soliders
Centurion: 60
Artillerymen: 300
Engineers: 100
Non combatants: 1,600
Calvary: 300
Combat:
The Roman legions would first release their pila at the first chance, adopting this from their Celtic rivals. Then they would go and charge the enemy, witht eh main body of heavy infantry closing the gap and attacking the double. They then drew their swords and engaged the enemy. Emphasis was on usibng the shield to provide maximum body coverage, while attacking was exposed by the enemy. In the combat that ensured, the Roman discipline, heavy shield which would be used to thrust or block the enemy, chest armour provided protection and training to give them important advantages over their not so very well trained enemies.
The Roman legionnary on the battlefield could endure short periods of intense fighting. He could also count on tempoary relief, and he would also be able to recover on an short distance. It was very much like the Republican style of renewing the combat, if the Hastatii couldn't break the line, then the Principe came forward. Unlike Hollywood or video games which seem to portray endless violence going on for hours, these soliders would be supplied with reinforcements and would fight in an organized manner, instead of endless fighthing till death or injury So it would be very short periods of fighting. In some situations however, they would be fighting for hours as taken in the battles of Alesia and Teuotberg forest. The stamina and the willpower that had been instilled in the training the Roman legions demanded them to make many charges, to make one surge greater than before, and then as the sides broke down, the greatest slaugther would begin.
Osprey images removed due to copyright issues - Maximinus Thrax
War Machines/Covering fire:
Roman battles during the late Empire were fought with avaible fire from Ballistas and Onagers ( think of the Gladiator scene) it is indeed possible that many did come to battle, but it is also possible that not all Romans battles would have had artierlly, especially in regions such as far north of Germania and the deserts of Parthia. It is questionable whether they had much impact, but I believe as long as the enemy were close to the dense formation of the Roman legions, it would have made very good impact. While the barrage continued, the Roman legions would walk in 30 metres of the Roman legiosn, launch their pilla and charge. This would be the key to many Roman victories. Another tactic was to draw the enemy with fire and feigned charges in order to give them the sense of attacking, by auxiliary equites( cavarly), once drawn in, they would be ambushed by Roman infantry and cavalry.
Regiments:
After AD 80, the centuriae of the First Cohort of each legion doubled to size around 160 men, the number of centurriae apparently reduced to five, thus reduing the legion's centurions from 60 to 59. Legion's effectiveness was thus increased to 5,240 men plus officers. In the same period, Auxiliary regiments both ' Alae'' and '' cohorotes'' were also doubled to so called milliaria size, which were in paper 1000 strong, but actually only 720 in milliary alae and 800 in cohores. Only a miniority of auxiliary regiments, about in seven were enlarged.
It was Augustus that kept the service of irregular allied native troops, but there was an urgent need to have them organised and equipped, if they were to provide their future services to the Roman army. They outnumbered Roman citizens by around 9 to 1 in the early 1st century and could only be drawn from the Empire's vast pool of non citizen subjectsd known as '' peregrini''. They were now recurited into regular units of cohort- strength around 500 men, to form coprs called auxilia. By Ad 23, Tactius reports that the Auxilia (175,000) numbered roughly many of the legionnaries. The roughly 250 regiments of Auxilia were divided into three types:
An all infanrtry Cohors (120 regiments)
An infantry unit with an cavarly contignent attached, cohors equitata ( 80 units)
All cavarly ala ( 50 units)
At this stage the auxiliary recruitment was ethnically based. Most men originating from their same tribes or provinces, hence they carried ethnics name. The Cohors V Raetorum ( 5th cohort of Raeti) were recruited from the Raeti, a Germanic tribe group of the Alpines tribes that inhabited Modern Switzerland. It has been suggested that proper equipment was not standardised until after AD 50, whereas in the past they would fight with the traditional weaponry of their tribes. It is possible that during Augustan times some regiments would have have had standardised equipment.
One thing I will note: The player will get an reform for Auxilia reform - hearby transforming all Auxilia units into proper Auxilia units with standardised armour and weapons. Think of the Roman Marian reforms in Rome 1 where they upgraded the legionnaires from hastati or prinicpies, this will happen by AD 68. Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian+ period (AD 68). Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions. By AD 68, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability.Also note that Auxiliary regiments were desgined to operate on the flanks and peforming exactly the same role as the Republic's italian allies had done before.
Units, numbers, strength:
The Imperial Army grew regularly in the 1st and 2nd centuries, doubling in size from 250,000 to 450,000 at the end of Septimius Severu's regin, (AD 211) The number of legions increased to 33, and auxiliary regiments ever more sharply to 400, the army under Severus probably reached its peak side for the Principate period ( 30bc - AD 284)
Taken from source:
In the late 3rd century, it is likely that the army suffered a sharp decline in numbers due to the so-called "Third Century Crisis+" (235-70) a period of numerous civil wars, major barbarian invasions and above all, the Plague of Cyprian+, an outbreak of smallpox which may have eliminated as many as a third of the army's effectives. It is possible that, by AD 270, the army was not much greater than in AD 24. From this low point it seems that numbers were substantially increased, by at least a third, under Diocletian (r. 284-305): John the Lydian+ reports at some point in his reign the army totalled 389,704 men - restoring overall strength to the level attained under Hadrian.
The likely trend in the size of the Roman army in the Principate may be summarised as follows:
wikitable
|+ '''ESTIMATED SIZE OF ROMAN ARMY 24–305 AD'''
! Army corps !! Tiberius
''24 AD'' !! Hadrian
''c. 130 AD'' !! S. Severus
''211 AD'' !! 3rd-century crisis
''c. 270 AD'' !! Diocletian
''284–305''
|LEGIONS
|125,000
|155,000
|182,000
|
|
|AUXILIA
|125,000
|218,000
|250,000
|
|
|PRAETORIAN GUARD
|~~5,000
|~~8,000
|~15,000
|
|'''Total Roman Army'''
|'''255,000'''
|'''381,000'''
|'''447,000'''
|'''290,000?'''
|'''390,000'''
|
NOTE: Regular land forces only. Excludes citizen-militias, barbarian ''foederati+'', and Roman navy+ effectives
Special Roman formations, although this is taken from wikipedia, I think its a good source to start:
Whatever the deployment, the Roman army was marked both by flexibility and strong discipline and cohesion. Different formations were assumed according to different tactical situations.
- Repellere equites ("repel horsemen/knights") was the formation used to resist cavalry. The legionaries would assume a square formation, holding their pila as spears in the space between their shields and strung together shoulder to shoulder.
- At the command iacere pila, the legionaries hurled their pila at the enemy.
- At the command cuneum formate, the infantry formed a wedge to charge and break enemy lines. This formation was used as a shock tactic.
- At the command contendite vestra sponte, the legionaries assumed an aggressive stance and attacked every opponent they faced.
- At the command orbem formate, the legionaries assumed a circle-like formation with the archers placed in the midst of and behind the legionaries providing missile fire support. This tactic was used mainly when a small number of legionaries had to hold a position and were surrounded by enemies.
- At the command ciringite frontem, the legionaries held their position.
- At the command frontem allargate, a scattered formation was adopted.
- At the command testudinem formate, the legionaries assumed the testudo (tortoise) formation. This was slow moving but almost impenetrable to enemy fire, and thus very effective during sieges and/or when facing off against enemy archers. However the testudo formation didn't allow a close combat and therefore it was used when the enemy were far enough away so as the legionaries could get into another formation before being attacked.
- At the command tecombre, the legionaries would break the Testudo formation and revert to their previous formation.
- At the command Agmen formate, the legionaries assumed a square formation, which was also the typical shape of a century in battle.
Roman Square formation:
#
The Roman wedge formation:
This is where the Romans would use their shields to break into the line.
Various Roman formations to use in the mod:
Romans in the East:
http://img.4plebs.org/boards/tg/imag...9450007211.jpg
The Roman infantry differed from the phalanx type forces of the Greeks/Macedonians/Pontians/Thracians/Dacians. Indeed while the phalanx would deepen their ranks to add power and strength, the general approach was one big massive line as opposed to the deep three layer Roman arrangement. The advantage of the Roman system however, allowed its legions to sustain in battle for an long time. Which would then be renewed by the second and third lines to break the enemy, and they were also had careful consideration, deployed too early and they entagled in combat and become exhausted, deployed too late and they might be swept away in an rout if the first line began to break. You will note that many Roman commanders were mobile, and used messengers to quickly send orders, or they themselves would command them too. If we compare this to the battle scene of Waterloo (1970)
You will note that if you look at the background, you will find regiments still walking in an organised formation, whereas officers would order their regiments to move and so on. The Napoleonic system I believe was very similar towards the Roman one. Anyway, its just an example to illustrate that this sort of mobile system had been adapted during the Swedish wars by Gustavus, in the 30 year wars where he made every man of his army capable of shooting, holding pikes and firing cannons. In fact you could say that many effective armies were influenced by the Roman mobile system when they had to co-ordinate attacks and lead their troops on the battlefield.
This is something we need to add an as realistic and authentic feature:
When playing battles, you will have the Roman legion deployed in the triplex acies formation. Your job is to maintain this formation. You can not move your units into an blob unless the AI does something like this. You have to first engage your first line when the enemy are close, and you will see that if the first line is getting too encumbered, you will then send the second line. But beware, if they are deployed too early, your first line will die, and if the second lines fails to penetrate, it will be disaster. This I think would add a lot more stragetic depth into actually commanding an Roman legion. Unlike CA which failed to provide the player with anything useful on how to actually feel like playing the Roman legion. This would be an excellent feature I think to add.
The key to swapping troops in battle I found, is to get the fresh troops to attack & start fighting BEFORE you pull the tired troops back. Also, don't let them get too tired as then they WILL rout. You also must have a great general in command for the "moral" factor. If you do it with anything less than a 4 star general, they will probably rout.
^^^^
This would be an excellent feature to add.
Whatever the actual formation taken however, the ominous funneling or surge of combat power up to the front remained constant:
"When the first line as a whole had done its best and become weakened and exhausted by losses, it gave way to the relief of fresh men from the second line who, passing through it gradually, pressed forward one by one, or in single file, and worked their way into the fight in the same way. Meanwhile the tired men of the original first line, when sufficiently rested, reformed and re-entered the fight. This continued until all men of the first and second lines had been engaged. This does not presuppose an actual withdrawal of the first line, but rather a merging, a blending or a coalescing of both lines. Thus the enemy was given no rest and was continually opposed by fresh troops until, exhausted and demoralized, he yielded to repeated attacks."
Taken from wikipedia, but please note, its to do with morale:
Morale. If the field of potential battle were near, movement became more careful and more tentative. Several days might be spent in a location studying the terrain and opposition, while the troops were prepared mentally and physically for battle. Pep talks, sacrifices to the gods and the announcements of good omens might be carried out. A number of practical demonstrations might also be undertaken to test enemy reaction as well as to build troop morale. Part of the army might be led out of the camp and drawn up in battle array towards the enemy. If the enemy refused to come out and at least make a demonstration, the commander could claim a morale advantage for his men, contrasting the timidity of the opposition with the resolution of his fighting forces.[8]
Historian Adrian Goldsworthy notes that such tentative pre-battle maneuvering was typical of ancient armies as each side sought to gain maximum advantage before the encounter.[12] During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipioat Zama. But whatever the truth of these discussions, or the flowery speeches allegedly made, the only encounter that ultimately mattered was battle.
Good basic summary taken from Wikipedia, I know, but its got some good stuff:
Force structure[edit]
- Contubernium: "tent unit" of 8 men
- Centuria: 80 men commanded by a centurion
- Cohort: 6 centuries or a total of 480 fighting men. Added to these were officers. The first cohort was double strength in terms of manpower, and generally held the best fighting men
- Legion: made up of 10 cohorts
- Field army: a grouping of several legions and auxiliary cohorts
- Equites: Each legion was supported by 300 cavalry (equites), sub-divided into ten turmae
- Auxilia and velites: allied contingents, often providing light infantry and specialist fighting services, like archers, slingers or javelin men. They were usually formed into the light infantry or velites. Auxilia in the Republican period also formed allied heavy legions to complement Roman citizen formations.
- Non-combatant support: generally the men who tended the mules, forage, watering and sundries of the baggage train
Rank summary[edit]
- Consul - elected official with military and civic duties; like a co-President (there were two), but also a major military commander
- Praetor - appointed military commander of a legion or grouping of legions, also a government official
- Legatus legionis - the legate or overall legion commander, usually filled by a senator
- Tribune - young officers, second in command of the legion. Other lesser tribunes served as junior officers
- Prefect - third in command of the legion. There were various types. The Prefectus equitarius commanded a unit of cavalry
- Primus pilus - commanding centurion for the first cohort - the senior centurion of the entire legion
- Centurion - basic commander of the century. Prestige varied based on the cohort they supervised
- Decurio - commander of the cavalry unit or turma
- Aquilifer - standard bearer of each legion - a position of much prestige
- Signifer - one for each century, handled financial matters and decorations
- Optio - equivalent to a sergeant, second in command for the centurion
- Cornicen - horn blower or signaler
- Imaginifer - carried standard bearing the emperor's image
- Decanus - equivalent to a corporal, commanded 8-man tent party
- Munifex - basic legionary - the lowest of the trained rank and file
- Tirones - new recruit to the legions, a novice
Roman formation Millitary attack movement:
This formation consisted off:
Troops at the right and the center, and also having reserves should the enemy ever try to flank. You would then be able to press around the center.
The second formation consisted of attacking the left flank of the enemy as it was considered to be weaker.
And the third formation, was to attack the right in case the left was stronger.
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Originally Posted by Petellius
