STARTING TROOPS:
Volones
“Volones” ( “The Willings” from Latin verb “volo”, “to want to”) was a term used to identify slaves (mostly enslaves debtors) and convicts that volunteered in the army in exchange of having their sentence granted.
When during the second Punic war after the battle of Cannae there was not a sufficient number of freedmen to complete the army, about 8000 young and able-bodied slaves offered to serve.
They were trained and led by professional Roman centurions and received armor at the public expense, but being the Republic in time of economic hardship with not enough equipment on hand to arm the convicts, they were equipped with spoliae optimae, the Celtic arms and armor that adorned various trophies and temples in the city. (Liv. XXII.57, XXIII.35; Macrob. Sat. I.11),
Accensi
Coming from the lowest social class at all, even if citizens, the Accensi or Ad Censi or Capite Censi (“taken in census as person”, not for their capital -that was none-) were very poor... the historical account are various about their equipment, and you can find that they were armed with "stones and wooden clubs", but also that they were without weapons at all and "instructed to grab the weapons of the fallen" or employed in all the other aspect of warfare except fighting (carrying orders, carrying heavy stuff/food/tents), even paired with the cornicem with the duty in battle to shout and incite the soldiers.
(Livy, I, 43, 1-7; Dionysius of Halicharnassus, 4, 17 - 18)
Leves
Slightly richer than the Accensi, the Leves were equipped just with javelins and a spear, and used as skirmishers in the early legion. During the middle of III B.C., together with the Accensi, the Leves were somehow reformed, and converged in the new and more competitive skirmisher corps of the Velites.
(Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History, p. 92 - Dionysius of Halicharnassus, 4, 17 - 18)
Rorarii
Coming from a social class slightly higher from Accensi and Leves, the Rorarii had the function of reserves of the Triarii, equipped with scutum, thrusting spear and sword (Dionysius of Halicharnassus, 4, 17 - 18) and normally stationed in the rear of the army, with the duty of fill the eventual gaps in the Triarii formation.
(Livy, VIII, 8)
Hastati - Hastati Cornelii
The Hastati were the first proper line of the roman legion, at first the poorest among the medium census citizen, gradually chosen from the younger and less experienced, less regarding their annual income.
The most common helmet used by Roman soldiers was the Montefortino, a bronze helmet of Etruscan and gallic concept, but sometimes Attic helmet of greek design were employed.
The shield used was the scutum, also called by Greeks thyreos (“door”), akin to the gallic shield but convex in shape, used by Italics and Etruscans since the first Iron Age, and at the beginning of III B.C. it had completely replaced the cumbersome greek-style oplon.
As ranged weapon, the line soldiers used the socketed pilum, or saunion, a weapon characteristic of the Umbro-Sabellians and identical to the Iberian falarica, and for hand to hand combat two kind of swords of greek development, the straight xyphos and the curved kopis.
At first they were equipped mainly with the spongia pectoris, a bronze chestplate covering the front and the back of the torso. Even if modern misconcept of a bare rectangular chestplate have spread, there is no archaeological evidence of it, and the findings varied from elaborated chestplates that mimic the Greek lorica musculata, sometimes even with additional bronze plates for the arms, to more common and simpler round models, called sometimes with the Greek term cardiophylax (G. Cascarino, L’Esercito Romano - Armamento e organizzazione - Vol I, pp- 124-125).
During the II Punic War, after Publius Cornelius Scipio seized the Carthaginian city of Qart-Hadasht Ibera in Spain (Carthago Nova, present days Cartagena), the greek swords were substitute with the gladius hispaniensis a straight double-edged sword of celtiberian concept.
Also, during the various campaigns against Carthaginians, Macedonians and Cisalpine Gauls, the panoply of the roman soldiers slightly changed and improved: the pilum became heavier and more specialized, spongiae/cardiophilakes diminished in favor of the lorica hamata (already known, but at first used only by richer soldiers), and even if the Montefortino remained the most common choice of the warrior, more hellenistic helmets were adopted by the infantry.
Principes - Principes Cornelii
Triarii - Triarii Cornelii
The Triarii, chosen at first within the richest, then within the most experienced veterans, were actually a remain of the ancient hoplite military structure of the monarchic roman period, of Etruscan origin.
Even if in the III B.C. they have abandoned the oplon, they still fought with a long “contrast” hasta.
They were normally deployed as third line, were they used to stay kneeled, with the shield on the shoulder and the spear stuck on the ground, and they rose when the situation became critic and Hastati and Principes had both routed or retreated.
Then, the Triarii stood up forming an impenetrable wall of shields and spears, the murus, opposing the enemy and hopefully letting the other soldiers reorganize themselves, so much that “Res ad Triarios rediit” (“the situation is becoming to the Triarii”) have became a colloquial expression meaning “to be in great difficulty”.
(Livy, VIII, 8, 9-12.)
Velites - Velites Cornelii
At the half of III B.C. all the infra classem roman military units (Accensi, Rorarii and Leves) were reformed, converging in a new type of light infantry called Velites (“Veles-Itis”, from “velox”, meaning “the Fast Ones”.
Velites were a light infantry, with the same role of the Greek akontisai (skirmishers), but unlike the skirmishers of the armies of other culture they benefit on good training and discipline.
To maintain high mobility and velocity they were no armor except for a wolf pelt, probably an heritage from hunting habits or related to the totem of Mars, and were e equipped with parmulae, very small round shields, while in combat they use the hasta velitaria, a light javelin, and a sword (kopis or xyphos), later replaced with the gladius hispaniensis.
During the Second Punic War, even if Velites were no match for their Carthaginian counterparts, Hannibal’s Lonchophoroi, some of their more expert units proved to be more than a simple light infantry, performing sometimes commando activities like hit and run attacks on the Carthaginian carriages, night blitz, standalone sabotage operations and guerrilla, forming the embryo of what, after Marian reform, will be called Antesignani.
Equites
Composed by people coming from the upper class, roman citizen cavalry was more or less structured on the model of Hellenistic medium cavalry and employing along with some local elements al lot of weaons and armors of the Hellenistic panoply (Polybius, VI, 25, 3), but actually was far less effective.
The Romans never had a decent riding tradition, and actually their cavalry was used just for scouting, chasing already engaged or fleeing enemy (Livy, II, 24; VI, 12; VII, 7, IX, 22) and actually, when was necessary an open confrontation, the horsemen actually preferred to dismount and fight on foot (Livy, II, 20)
Socii
The Socii Italici were the Italic federate allies of Rome, and normally they provide the half of the effectives of a legion. They came mainly from Latin and Osco-Umbrians nations (like Frentani, Peligni and Marrucini).
Even if retaining some traditional elements of their military equipment, by III B.C. they were instructed exactly like the Romans in Hastati, Principes, Triarii and Velites, and with the passing of time they tend to look more and more identical to their roman counterparts.
Hastati Sociorum
Principes Sociorum
Triarii Sociorum
Velites Sociorum
Equites Sociorum
Being Roman citizens unconfortable with mounted warfare, the roman army tend to rely more and more on allied contingents.
Equites Sociorum came from Italic allies, expecially from Southern Italy (Campanians and Lucanians).
Even if virtually equipped more or less like their roman counterpart, they were far more effective.
Pedites Extraordinarii
Pedites Extraordinari, “Exceptional Infantrymen”, or in Greek “Epiléktoi” (“Chosen Ones”) were the best and more experienced infantry troops provided by the Italic allies, and were put directly under the Consul’s command.
Equites Extraordinarii
As for Pedites Extraordinarii, Equites Extraordinarii were a chosen force of Italic allies, but on horseback.
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MARIAN REFORM
Cohors Rei Publicae
Even if the names of Hastati, Principes and Triarii were maintained long after Marius’ military reform, they became just detachment names with no practical equipment or role distinction.
During the last decades before Marius reform the roman army had undergone to a huge standardization of equipment, in part due to the huge amount of riches that have flown in the estate exchequer and in the personal patrimony of high rank officers and even veterans after the conquest of Carthaginian and Macedonian territories.
Armed by direct expenses of the estate or their general (the difference isn’t always clear), The Roman soldiers abandon at all the spongia pectoris in favor of the far more protective lorica hamata.
The long spear, already limited to the Triarii corps was abandoned at all in favor of the pilum, and even if Hellenistic helmets were still present, the Montefortino with both his simplicity and effectiveness became the standard helmet of the legion, along with the Coolus.
Antesignani
As already said, even if during the II Punic War some of their best units were employed in commando operation, when they find a little strong opposition from Carthaginian light infantry, the Velites found that their equipment wasn't well suited to sustain a prolonged clash, and they were fairly outmatched.
With Marius reform, Velites were not exactly suppressed as military corps, but "transformed" in the Antesignani (“The ones that stay before the standards”), and their equipment slightly modified:
"Because the Velites with their little parmulae (round shields) were easily cut into pieces, the Antesignani were well protected with strong shields, ornated with different patterns" (M. Terentii Varronis, Saturae Menippeae 22. 552, 25), and moreover "The Velites fought with parmulae. This custom was suppressed by Gaius Marius, that exchange them with Bruttian shields" (Festus, 238). Festus states also "Bruttian shields are called the shields used by Bruttians" (oh really? XD), and looking to Bruttian numismatic we can see that their shields were actually small thyreos without umbo, more protective than a round parmula but without doubt lighter and less cumbersome than a huge standard scutum: http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greec...cheu_042.2.jpg
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/sg/sg0703.jpg
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greec...SNGANS_106.jpg
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greec.../Scheu_043.jpg
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bruttium/brettii/Scheu_041.jpg
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/bruttium/brettii/Scheu_049.jpg
Evocati
The Evocati (“The Called Ones”) were veteran legionaries that had terminated their military service, but volunteered to enlist again in the army or were called back to arms for specific purpose (Cassius Dio, Roman History 45, 12).
Their training was obviously better that the others legionaries, and their equipment more expensive, sometimes displaying elements looted on the old battlefields, like Celtic iron helmets or Hellenistic loricae squamatae.
Levis Lorica Classiarii
Even if the proper Classiarii (“Fleet ones”) were instituted by Augustus, before he became emperor there is evidence that there was already roman military corps intended to fight on ships.
While after Augustus most Classiarii will be heavily armored (following the statement, reported by Vegetius, that “on sea can be used heavier armors because most of the fight is still”), the former naval units were equipped following an opposite philosophy, with light armors, that would help them if they were overthrown off board, as reported in the battle of Actius.
The distinctive color of Classiarii shields and tunics was azure-blue, as the ships’ sails, maybe for mimetic purposes.
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AUGUSTEAN REFORM
Cohors Imperii
During the passage from I B.C. and I A.D. the equipment of the legionary still changes and evolves: iron helmets of celtic origin became more and more common, alongside with the developed Coolus helmet, that from is former bacinet-like structure became a more complex and reliable implement of defence.
The Scutum undergo to further changes, and the model with the central wooden spina and “butterfly boss” was definitely abandoned in favor for a simpler round metal boss.
Also, the rectangular shape, more cumbersome but also more protective and effective in testudo formation, became more popular.
Gravis Lorica Legionari
The Lorica Segmentata was developed in the passage fro I B.C. and I A.D.
Even if more protective and lighter than the Lorica Hamata, it never replaced it, and actually during the III B.C. it was abandoned, probably due to the complicated maintenance procedures related with it, like the substitution of damaged segments and the necessity of big quantity of grease to protect it from rust.
Gravis Lorica et Manica Legionari
The manica was implemented by roman legionaries fighting the Dacians, to protect their arms from the vicious blows of the ensis falcate, a curved sword used by the Bastarnae allied troops of Decebalus army.
Evocati Imperii
As for the Evocati of Marian era, these are experienced veterans, maybe older than other legionaries but surely more skilled and with a better equipment.
Antesignani Imperii
Passing the years the Antesignani rose to an even more important role: Vegetius states that the Antesignani had the duty to coordinate the whole marching rhythm of the legions, the assaults and the retreats.
They however still in imperial period have a lighter equipment than the legionaries, fighting in a looser formation and performing hit-and run, and keeping animal furs on the helmet to terrorize the enemy (Vegetius, Epitome Rei Militari, 2.16), even if no more wolves', but bear pelts, as depicted in some reliefs of the period.
So we actually see as a skirmish low-budget unit slowly mutates in something like a "commando corp", changing their equipment to better fit his duties, and finally became elite corps that coordinates the whole army
Praetorianii
Even if particular units of soldiers with the duty to protect Praetors and Consuls were occasionally cited since III B.C., was emperor Augustus to organize specific corps of imperial guards, formed by chosen italic legionaries.
Older theories that imagined a particular equipment for Praetorians different from legionaries have been long abandoned, and save for a casual use of the imperial version of attic-like helmets (more in parade context than in active war scenario), actually Praetorians had the same equipment than the legionaries, -but obviously richer-
Gravis Lorica Classiarii
With emperor Augustus, the Classiarii were instituted as regular naval corps.
Their equipment was heavier than other roman naval units, and in Palestrina’s Temple of Fortuna Primigenia relief http://wwwdelivery.superstock.com/WI...1788-14416.jpg is shown the use of loricae musuculatae and attic helmets, and roman and greek historians writing about the battle of Actium point out the heavy equipment of Augustus’ heavy Classiarii opposed to the light armors of Mark Antony’s Levis Classiarii.
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AUXILIARY TROOPS
Auxilia Equites Venetorum
The Venetkens were an Italic people living in Northern Italy, in nowdays Veneto, famed for their equestrian ability.
Surrounded by Gallic tribes, they were strongly linked by foedus (alliance) to Rome, with a friendship dated back to mythological times, when, as tradition fabled, Antenores, a Trojan commander fleeing from the falling of the city, brought the Trojan allied people of the Enetòi in Northern Italy and founded Patavium (Padua), as Aeneas lead his fellow Trojans in Latium and founded Lavinium, laying the roots of future roman civilization.
Romans and Venetkens regarded each other as brethren, and Venetkens often provided willingly auxiliary troops to Rome (Silius Italicus, Punica).
Their entry into the Roman Republic is recorded as one of the few done almost willingly and without conflict.
Auxilia Funditores Opiterginorum
Opitergines were the inhabitant of the venetken city of Opitergium, famed for being skillful slingers.
Along with cavalry from Ateste and Patavium, slingers from Opitergium were the main kind of auxiliary troops that Venetkens provided to their roman allies (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, IX, 6086, 8 and 10)
Auxilia Levium Armorum Ligurorum
Ligurian people lacked of a common political sense, and while some tribes were fiercely enemies of Rome, others were allied, and provided auxiliary light infantry.
Especially during the Third Macedonic War, Ligurian light infantry was used successfully to contrast the Macedonian peltastai (Livy, XLII, 35)
Auxilia Gallorum - Auxilia Equites Gallorum
Even if Gauls were traditionally enemies of Rome, some of them eventually came in good terms with the Romans, providing auxiliary troops.
The first Gallic people providing auxiliaries were the Cenomanes, a cisalpine nation bordering with the Venetkens, that being allied with them inherited the good inclination to Rome, remaining faithful even when, during the II Punic War, all the other Cisalpine Gauls rebelled and their auxiliaries in the roman army mutiny, joining the Carthaginians (Livy, XXI, 55).
With the expanding of the Rome, more and more Gallic tribes provided cavalry to the legions, and Gallic cavalry became more and more important component of the roman army, especially after the Marius’ reform that suppressed roman citizen cavalry, so much that all the technical Latin terms connect with military maneuvers on horse came from celtic language (Arrian, Ars Tactica, 37 - 43)
Auxilia Sagittarii Rutenorum
Gauls weren’t very famous nor prized as archers, but when Pompey closed to Caesar the possibility to access to Greek and Oriental provinces, he recruited his auxiliary archers from the Gallic tribe of the Ruteni (Cesar, De Bello Civili, 51)
Auxilia Equites Haeduorum
The Haedui from Transalpine Gaul were traditionally friends of the Roman people (Caesar, De Bello Gallico, I, 33), and when Caesar begin the conquest of Transalpine Gaul, they provided him almost all of his Auxiliary Cavalry (Caesar, De Bello Gallico, I, 15).
Auxilia Ilergetorum
Even if during the first most part of the II Punic War the Ilergetes were allied to the Carthaginians, at the end they switched sides, and start providing infantry auxiliaries to the Romans.
Even if they were skilled fighters, they were considered scarcely reliable, being quite prone to mutiny.
Auxilia Sagittarii Creticorum
Cretan were famed in all the old world as mercenary archers.
They used a composite bow, the toxon.
Along with other mercenary troops they were widely used by the tyrants of Syracusa, and lot of them settled in Sicily. The first cretan archers recruited by the Romans were hired actually in Syracusa (Livy, XXII, 37)
Auxilia Funditores Rhodiorum
Slingers from the island of Rhodes were famed in all the ancient world as mercenary slingers.
They were the first to use lead slingshots, that increased greatly the effectiveness.
Along with other mercenary troops they were widely used by the tyrants of Syracusa, and lot of them settled in Sicily. The first Rhodian slingers recruited by the Romans were hired actually in Syracusa (Livy, XXII, 37)
http://slinging.org/uploads/images/historical/preroman_files/Image4s.gif
Auxilia Funditores Balearicorum
At first mainly mercenaries of the Carthaginians, the Balares people start to provide auxiliary slingers to Rome when their islands became under roman control.
Auxilia Equites Maurorum et Numidiorum
Always searching foreign troops that could help to fill their gap in cavalry, the Romans since from the end of the II Punic War onward relied a lot on Berber tribes.
Along with the Massyli numidians, the Mauri also provided a skillful skirmish cavalry.
Auxilia Levium Armorum Numidiorum
The Numidians of the Massyli tribe, oppressed by their stronger brethren, the Massesyli, that were allied with Carthage, at the first chance offered their services to the Romans, providing them not only cavalry but infantry skirmisher auxiliary troops too (Livy, XLII, 65).
Auxilia Thracorum - Auxilia Equites Thracorum
Thracians start to provide infantry and cavalry auxilia to the Romans during the period of the Macedonic wars, willing to throw off the Macedonian joke.
Most of them came from the Bessi tribe, and actually were strongly hellenized.
http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3026/2...3fc842f4_o.jpg
http://pospabr.sweb.cz/Rider_Euphronios_Louvre_G105.jpg
Auxilia Illyricorum
All the area of the Illyricum became crucial during the early phases of the conflict between Rome and Macedonia.
Illyrians fought on both sides as allied or mercenaries, and the first account of an Illyrian auxiliary force in the Fasti Triumphales 586 ab Urbe condita, where is recorded how auxiliaries troops of the Illyrian tribe of the Partini assisted Lucius Anicius Gallus in defeating the Illyrian pirate Gentius, allied of the Macedonians.
Auxilia Equites Germanorum - Auxilia Clavati Germanorum
When all the Transalpine Gauls, even the traditionally filo-roma Haedui, joined Vercingetorix’s rebellion, Caesar was forced to search elsewhere for reinforcing his cavalry, and he recruited huge amount of cavalrymen within the Germanic tribes among the Rhine (Caesar, De Bello Gallico, VII, 65).
Auxiliary troops of Germanic cavalry and light infantry (Caesar, De Bello Civili, I, 83; III, 52) became a constant component in Caesar’s army and in the following roman armies: bare-chested Germanic light infantrymen armed with clubs are depicted even in the Trajan Column.
http://wwwdelivery.superstock.com/WI...4430-10091.jpg
Auxilia Equites Cantabrici
Cantabrians were a celtiberian people famed for their skirmish cavalry.
After they had been defeated by emperor Augustus, they started to supply the Romans with auxiliary cavalry, first deployed against their neighbors Astures.
Auxilia Elephantorum Libycorum
The romans rarely employed elephants in battle, but there are some interesting accounts, like the battle of Cinoscefalae, were auxiliary units of north African elephants were successfully deployed against the Macedonians.
AUGUSTEAN REFORM AUXILIARY TROOPS
With the Augustean reform, the Auxiliaries became a more regular and organized unit within the Roman legion, and even if they maintained some elements of their characteristic culture of provenience, their equipment, as their organization, became more standardized on roman model.
The recruitment of Auxilia during the empire wasn’t only of volunteers, but all the communities of peregrini (non citizen) of the empire were attended to provide a minimum quote of levies.
Note that non all the Auxilia were non-citizens, but were even some auxiliary cohorts formed by Romans, that dated their origin to the Dalmato-Pannonic Rebellion of the 6 Ch.E., were the case of great need urged Augustus to recruit slaves and ex-slaves (granting them citizenship), common criminals and convicts (in a similar ways of what happened in Republican era after Cannae with the recruitment of Volones).
Pedites Auxiliarii Civium Romanorum - Ala Civium Romanorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Gallorum - Ala Gallorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Batavorum - Ala Batavorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Thracorum - Auxilia Sagittarii Thracorum - Ala Thracorum Sagittarorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Levantinorum - Auxilia Sagittarii Levantinorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Dalmatorum
Pedites Auxiliarii Hispaniorum
Equites Singulares
In a similar way of Equites Extraordinarii of Republican period, Equites Singulares were chosen horsemen from the auxiliaries with duty of guarding the safety of consuls and trubunes
Ala Dromedariorum
With the expansion in desertic area of the Middle East, Romans started to employ native units on camels to withstand the hostile environment, as attested by epigraphic evidence (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, III, 93; III, 14160)
Ala Sarmatorum Cataphracta
After meeting on the field the fierce cataphract cavalry during the dacian campaign, provided to Decebalus by his Sarmatian allies, the Romans start to recruit Sarmatian heavy horsemen, in the need to confront heavy Sassanid clibanarii in the Middle East and to find an answer to the increasing use of medium cavalry within the East Germanic tribes.
Coming from a land not directly under the roman yoke, more than proper auxiliaries the Sarmatian were foederati.
Numerus Equites Sarmatorum
The Numeri were irregular units of mercenaries within the Roman army.
Not coming from a subdued country and being some times simply mercenaries, Sarmatians often were organized in sucg irregular units, that displayed various weapon (often the feared composite steppe bow) and sometimes even comprehended women horse-archers, ase attested by some female warrior sepulture of Sarmatian origin founded in Britain and dated to roman imperial period.
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