Taoism - The Thread
Taoism – The Thread
I've been interested in Taoism for a long time, and its ideas have informed my attitude to life since my late teens. Since there seems to be some interest on this forum in various eastern philosophical systems (I refer you to The Fish's excellent thread on Hinduism and El Guapo's superb examination of Buddhism), and hopefully a receptiveness to ways of thinking which are outside the dogmatic and narrow constraints of conventional mainstream religion, I thought I might share my interest.
I will not be discussing Taoism the organised religion, because I don't know anything about it. In any case, this was a later development, and we can examine and interpret the classical Taoist texts independently of it.
If you know anything about Buddhism, Zen, or Hinudism, many of these ideas will seem familiar, as these systems, all of which are based on an analytical and sceptical evaluation of the nature of existence, have much in common.
The Tai Chi, Yin and Yang, and the I Ching
The Classic of Changes, or I Ching, is an ancient text (even compared to the other ancient texts described below, although its age is a subject of much discussion) and may be considered to represent the earliest known roots of Chinese cosmology which subsequently formed the basis for Taoist thinking. It describes the manifest universe as consisting of the results of the dynamic interplay of certain quintessential elemental principles, which, in their manifold fluctuations and permutations, give rise to all of creation and lie at the root of all causality.
The subject matter of the I Ching is entirely abstract and symbolic. It describes the universe as consisting of an ultimate oneness (Tai Chi) which contains masculine and feminine aspects (Yang and Yin). these subsequently give rise to elemental forces (represented in the I Ching by groups of three “lines”, each of which may be yin or yang). The movements of the endlessly changing dynamic equilibrium of all events is then expressed in a series of sixty-four hexagrams, where each of the six lines can be either yin or yang. These sixty-four hexagrams form sixty-four archetypal images of all of the possibilities of the universe. The interpretation of each is further influenced by the changing or static qualities of each individual line in the hexagram. The purely abstract significance of the events portrayed by the hexagrams have been interpreted in ethical and philosophical terms in a variety of written commentaries.
One of the keys points of this vision of the universe as consisting of two opposing positive and negative principals (which, as we know, is an accurate description of atomic and quantum realities) is that everything contains its opposite within itself, and all extremes must turn into their opposites. These qualities are graphically shown in the image of the Tai Chi.
The compatibility of the Taoist paradigm of reality with quantum physics has been discussed in great detail in Fritjof Capra's famous book The Tao of Physics. Quantum pioneer Neils Bohr adopted the Tai Chi as a personal symbol at a time when eath-shattering discoveries in quantum mechanics were laying waste to the traditional conceptual framework of western reality.
The classical Taoist Trilogy
The three main texts which form the foundations of Taoist philosophy are considered to be: the Lao Tzu, the Chuang Tzu, and the Lieh Tzu. Each of these is named after a famous, though not necessarily factual, figure from Chinese history / legend. The true authorship of each of these is a complex matter, which I will not dwell upon.
I haven't read the Lieh Tzu, so I can't comment on it; I'll focus on the other two members of the trilogy instead. The Lao Tzu, or Tao Te Ching consists of eighty-one terse and often cryptic chapters. It is concerned with profound spiritual and ontological questions, and the philosophy of kingship and the correct running of the state.
Since the changing forces of the Tao overrule all, the business of the wise man is to arrange his affairs in harmony with the dictates of the Tao. This is the only path to success, since nothing can resist the Tao, and to go against it is to bring disaster upon oneself.
“That which goes against the Way will come to an early end” - Tao Te Ching, chapter 30.
According to the holistic logic of the Tao Te Ching, there is no dichotomy between the issues of cosmology and statecraft – since all of existence is united in the Tao and the microcosm reflects the macrocosm, the two are identical: by governing the state in accordance with the natural order, harmony is achieved, and prosperity will be the result. The Hermetic aphorism “As above, so below” is central in Taoism.
The Chuang Tzu, in contrast, is a rambling and diverse collection of anecdotes, folk tales, fables, dissertations and commentaries, in wide ranging styles and presumably from the pen of countless authors. The subject matter of this anthology is much more down-to-earth than that of the Tao Te Ching – and yet the underlying ideas are founded on an identical paradigm. Where Lao Tzu is concerned with matters of immense import and scope – nothing less than the matter of ruling the kingdom in accordance with principles derived from the ultimate nature of existence – Chuang Tzu applies the same ideas to the life and spiritual development of the individual. There is a remarkable down-to-earth quality here, coexisting strangely with the contradictory, abstruse and mystical existential reflections that are integral to Taoist thought.
Chuang Tzu, considering he existed (assuming that he did exist at all) over two thousand years ago, is a remarkably revolutionary, iconoclastic figure. He is convinced that the happiness, fulfilment and freedom of the individual depends on a determined defiance of convention and the renunciation of all petty conformity and the values of the masses. Yet , despite this headstrong rebelliousness, there is a persistent benevolence for humanity. The sage must follow his own path uncompromisingly, reject absolutely the inherited wisdom of society at large, and yet nurture his fellow man with compassion.
Taoist Ontology
Many people are of the opinion that the purpose of their life philosophy (or religion, if they call it that) is to explain away the mysteries of existence and creation and replace them with simple, easy answers. This need not always be the case, however. Some people believe that there is much that goes beyond what can be explained in clear terms, and that the ultimate nature of reality is, if not unknowable, is certainly inexpressible in words.
There is no God figure in Taoist philosophy – the subject simply never arises, as if the great Taoist thinkers did not consider it worthy of attention. Although folk deities and spirits do occasionally receive a passing mention in these texts, the subject of any kind of all powerful divinity is never discussed.
Taoism is at the same time an entirely pragmatic, sceptical philosophy, and a recondite and mystical one, full of paradoxes and concepts which cannot be fully grasped or defined in any strict literal or rational sense. The Lao Tzu and the Chuang Tzu tell us over and over again that we cannot know the origins of reality, or the causes behind its manifestation. The nature of the divine is never speculated upon, or even mentioned – at least in the sense that we conceive of it in western theology. Since the question is unanswerable, the originators of what we now call Taoism did not spend much time on it. The ultimate source of creation is simply written off as being the Tao – whatever that is.
The Tao
“The Way that can be spoken of is not the constant Way, the name that can be named is not the constant name.” - Tao Te Ching chapter 1
The Tao itself is unknowable, undefinable, and omnipresent. It transcends logic and rational thought. It is said to be the supreme cause of all things, but it cannot be seen or described. This concept may seem bizarre to those who are not familiar with it, but in fact it is reminiscent of and analogous to corresponding concepts in several other philosophical systems. Since our rational minds are only one aspect of our nature, and the Tao is in everything, it is only reasonable that it must be greater than knowledge that can be grasped in concrete terms.
However, just because the Tao cannot be explained does not mean that it does not exist. It can be seen by its actions. All skill is the result of the Tao. The problem we have has humans is trying to harness it without grasping it, for to attempt to grasp it is to lose it. Instead, we must attune ourselves to the Tao in a non-rational, intuitive way, just as our bodily organs function best when we are not consciously aware of them.
This notion is encapsulated in the term Wu Wei, or actionless action. Actionless action does not mean idleness. Rather, it means a special, frictionless way of flowing with events without conflict. This can be achieved by using intelligence that is free from desire. According to Lao Tzu, the sage who understands the Tao acts without preconceptions or preferences, and is unattached to anything external to himself. He possesses a serenity and tranquillity that allows him to respond to the flow of change and events and maintain his inner balance and harmony without being disturbed. So, Wu Wei is not stillness, it is stability through motion, like the case of a gyroscope or a bicycle which remains upright as a result of constant motion.
The enemies of the Tao are emotion and desire:
“In an archery competition, you shoot as skilfully as possible, hoping to win. If you compete to win decorated bracelets, you are concerned with your aim. If you compete for gold, it can make you very nervous. Your skills are the same in all these cases, but because one of these is more significant than the others, this puts external pressure on you. To pay too much attention to external things makes you thoughtless about internal things.” - Chaung Tzu, chapter 19.
This explains the phenomenon of the “choke” in matters of skill or sportsmanship. To utilise Wu Wei, we must transcend concern over the outcome of things, and then we will have complete relaxation and concentration on the moment and our actions will be harmonious. Everything should be done with ease and free of effort or apprehension. Our thoughts need to remain focused on the matter in hand (in the analogy above, we need to focus on our archery, without letting our thoughts stray beyond the mechanics of shooting) rather than becoming agitated by concerns that go beyond the immediate.
The illusory nature of concerns and emotions is demonstrated in an anecdote in the same chapter of the Chuang Tzu. We are told that a duke fell ill after seeing a ghost when out hunting. He refused to go outside and his condition deteriorated. Then he talks to one of his advisors about the matter. The man listens attentively, and then informs him that the ghost he saw is an omen that means he will become dictator. Upon hearing this, the duke immediately leaps out of bed overjoyed and makes a full recovery. The point is that our imagination holds immense sway over us, to make us feel sick or strong.
Yet another illustration of the transient and imaginary nature of our emotions is demonstrated by the following passage:
“If someone who uses a boat to cross a lake is hit by an empty boat, he won't be angry. However, if there is a man in the other boat, he will shout at him to get out of the way. To start out, he had no one to be angry with, now there is someone.”
What the author is getting at here is that how we respond to events is determined by ourselves – the events themselves do not affect us internally unless we wish them to.
Being unconcerned about the outcome of things means that the wise man passes through life without troubles, as a drunken man can fall from a speeding carriage without sustaining injury because of his bodily relaxation and flexibility. The wise man is detached even from himself:
“The sage puts his person last and it comes first,
treats it as extraneous to himself and so it is preserved.
Is it not because he is without thoughts of self that he is able to accomplish his private ends?” - Tao Te Ching, chapter 7.
That's it for part one. Plenty more to follow, but now I must attend my brother's wedding.
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Originally Posted by Ummon
