- The Historical Background -
In the midst of the so called Crisis of The Third Century (also called Military Anarchy) within the Roman Empire between 235 – 284 A.D, during which there were more than twenty to twenty five claimants to the title of Augustus and the Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague and economic depression, the Eastern provinces would find themselves perhaps in the worst position ever in Roman history until the Arab conquests of Syria and the Levant three centuries later. A catastrophic defeat against the Sassanids at the Battle of Misiche in 244 A.D would see Emperor Gordian III die in unclear circumstances (it is unknown if he died in battle or was murdered by Phillip the Arab) and the latter pay a tribute of 500,000 denarii to Shapur I, followed by yet another Roman defeat to Shapur I at the Battle Of Barbalissos in 253 A.D, resulting in the capture of Dura-Europos and even Antioch, which was possibly sacked again in 256 A.D. Rome’s most humiliating defeat however would come again at Shapur I’s hands in 260 A.D at the Battle of Edessa, when Emperor Valerian and his entire army were defeated and he was himself captured, living the remainder of his life either as a hostage in the Persian court, or rumored even to have been flayed alive or used as a personal footstool to the Sassanid Shahanshah, resulting in further raids into Syria and even Anatolia, and Antioch’s sack once again that year. It is against this grim backdrop that we see the rise and fall of Palmyra and the Palmyrene Empire.
- The Bride of the Desert -
The city of Palmyra, or Tadmor as it was called in its native tongue, located at an oasis near the edge of the Syrian desert between Roman Syria to the west and Persian Babylonia to the east, had always had an illustrious history, being called "The Bride of the Desert" for its splendor. Deriving its wealth and prosperity from the lucrative spice trade and the caravan routes they controlled (linking together Persia, India, China and the Roman Empire) Palmyra’s origins go back to the second millennium B.C, being mentioned in the Old Testament of the Hebrews as being built by King Solomon, a story later confirmed by Josephus in the 1st century A.D. The Palmyrenes were ethnically Semitic (Amorite, Aramaic and Arabic) but their position at the crossroads of Greco-Roman and Persian civilizations meant heavy adoption and borrowing of diverse elements of Greek, Roman, Parthian and Persian cultures too. This is attested by inscriptions found from the 1st century B.C onwards which are in Aramaic, Greek and Latin. While its relationship with Rome was lukewarm up to that time, the 1st century A.D onwards sees an increasingly stronger set of political and economic ties forming between the two. Germanicus visited the city in his tour of the eastern provinces in 18 A.D, with Syria’s governor Ulpius Traianus adding Palymra into the Empire’s road and defense network in 75 A.D. The Roman Emperor Hadrian visited it in 129-130 A.D, and was so impressed by its beauty and splendor he proclaimed it a “free city” and re-titled it “Palmyra Hadriana”. It was eventually raised to the status of a Roman Colony by Septimius Severus or Caracalla at the end of the 2nd century A.D, as suggested by the prominence of the name “Septimius” in Palmyrene’s ruling family from then onwards. It was around this time Sassanid encroachment on the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates rivers began to threaten Palmyrene commercial interests.
In 250-260 A.D, with Sassanid incursions and the Crisis of the Third Century in full swing, it would be the Palmyrene prince Septimius Odaenathus – appointed governor of the province of Syria by Valerian - which would link his native prestige with spectacular support of the Roman regime in the east and would result in conspicuous Roman honours bestowed by Gallienus. His status was such that bilingual Greek and Palmyrene inscriptions already commemorate him as a member of the Roman Senate as early as 251-252 A.D, and by 258 A.D he was said to be of “consular rank”. Ironically, these established precedents and relationships would form the basis for the revolt of 270 A.D during which the Palmyrene Kingdom would become an independent splinter state from the Roman Empire, together with Postumus’ Gallic Empire. Making use of diplomacy, shifts in power and considering Palmyra’s own interests, Odaenathus was also pragmatic, it being claimed by Peter the Patrician that he sent camel loads of rich gifts to Shapur in order to secure an alliance, which Shapur rejected, demanding complete subjugation. The die being cast, with Valerian’s capture in 260 A.D, Odaenathus attacked the Sassanids as they withdrew. The following year, he would besiege the usurper Quietus (Macrianus’ son) and his king-maker Callistus (also called “Ballista”) at Emesa and secure their deaths. In subsequent years, he campaigned successfully in Persian territory; he is said to have won back Nisibis to Roman control, and to have penetrated as far as Ctesiphon, invading it twice. Jewish sources reflect a campaign in Babylonia, in which Odaenathus pursued Palmyrene trading-interests in addition to leading incursions into Sassanid territory. Zosimus reports that Odaenathus led Roman legions as well as the Syrian levies noted by other sources, indicating a mixed army at his command.
He would celebrate his Persian victories by assuming the title of “king of kings” (Basileus Basileon) in Greek and mlk mlk’ in Palmyrene, also sharing it with his son in what was no doubt as a deliberate affront to Shapur. Gallienus confirmed Odaenathus's military authority in the eastern part of the Empire (with favourable omens corroborating his success being noticed even in the thirteenth Sibylline Oracle) and while his office is not directly attested, his son, Vaballathus' later claims to the titles "Dux Romanorum" and "Corrector Totius Orientis" (Lord of the Romans and Restorer of the East) must have been founded on Odaenathus' precedent. In spite of this success, Odaenathus and his eldest son were assassinated in 267 A.D by a kinsman, Maconius (though some sources suggest Gallienus, this seems unlikely given Odaenathus’ success and the former’s enthusiastic support for him) and this would set the stage for one of the most powerful warrior queens in Roman history to come to the fore – enter Zenobia!
- The Queen and the Empress -
Born sometime around 240 A.D and raised in Palmyra, and claiming descent from Dido – the Queen of Carthage – and the Ptolemies through queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt by means of Drusilla of Mauretania and the royal family of Emesa, Zenobia (Julia Aurelia Septimia Zenobia in Latin, Bat-Zabbai in Aramaic and al-Zabbā’ in Arabic) became the leader of one of Palmyra’s founding tribes (the Almlaqi as described by Arabic writers) following her husband Odaenathus’ death in 267 A.D, and the effective regent queen of Palmyra – ruling in place of their one year old son, Vaballathus. She was described by both classical and Arabic sources as exceedingly beautiful (more so than Cleopatra) and intelligent with a dark complexion, pearly white teeth, and bright black eyes. She was also known for her reputation for extreme chastity. Sources also describe Zenobia as carrying herself like a man, riding, hunting and drinking on occasion with her officers. Well educated, with a working knowledge of Latin and fluent in Greek, Aramaic, and Egyptian, showing a predisposition for the culture of the latter and being possibly part Egyptian herself through her mother. According to the Historiae Augusta, in 269 A.D she would refer to Alexandria as “my ancestral city”. She is also known for her intellectual pursuits, and is supposed to have hosted literary salons and surrounded herself with philosophers and poets, the most famous of these being Cassius Longinus – a Platonist and philosopher who was her teacher and would later become her teacher and chief counselor. Athanasius of Alexandria reported her being "a Jewess follower of Paul of Samosata", which explains her strained relationship with the rabbis.
In coming to power in in 267 A.D, Zenobia and Vaballathus' control seems to have picked up smoothly where Odaenathus's was terminated, and perhaps they had hoped to continue pursuing their own commercial and military interests as they had done before whilst also maintaining Rome's local hegemony and broader safety as they had done under Gallienus, who was murdered in 268 A.D. Yet, by 269-270 A.D, Palmyrene forces broke into violent action. Troops fought south through Bostra, destroying the temple of Jupiter Hammon, and taking Antioch and Emessa. Interestingly, at this time, coins minted at Antioch bore the "double headed" design, with Aurelian depicted on one side with all his imperial titles and epithets, while on the other Vaballathus with the title of Clarissimus Rex Consul Imperator Dux Romanorum (Noble King, Consul, Imperator and Roman Lord) again perhaps as an attempt to placate the new Augustus and cement an idea of joint leadership. Regardless, in 269 A.D Zenobia and her army, led by her right hand - the general Zabdas - violently conquered Egypt, with the help of an Egyptian ally, Timagenes, eventually defeating and beheading Tenagino Probus, the Aegyptian prefect. It was at this time Zenobia earned her renown as a "warrior queen", as it was said in leading her army she displayed significant prowess: she was an able horse rider, and would walk three or four miles on foot with her soldiers. She also took the title of Queen of Egypt. With her large army, she campaigned further north and East, taking Syria, Palestine and Lebanon and going as far into Anatolia as Ancyra and Chalcedon. However, coins continued to be minted with Aurelian as Augustus.
While it is possible Aurelian accepted (perhaps begrudgingly) Zenobia's claim and that of her son, being busy campaigning in Germania and Illyria, by 272-273 A.D relations between the two had begun to break down and Aurelian campaigned East to reunite the Empire. At this time Zenobia and Vaballathus claimed the titles of Augusta and Augustus respectively on their coins. Zozimus relates that Aurelian Sent a subordinate general to take Egypt, while the emperor quickly took Ancyra. He spared Tyana, which surrendered to him, before encountering the massed Palmyrene forces led by Zabdas in a plain near Antioch. There the two armies collided, and while the Palmyrene cataphract cavalry was far superior, it was led into a trap through a feigned rout by Aurelian's lighter cavalry, tiring and exhausting them, before they suddenly turned about and destroyed them. Without cavalry, and faced against Aurelian's crack infantry, the Palmyrenes lost badly and were forced to retreat to Antioch. There, it is related Zabdas paraded a man who looked like Aurelian through the streets as they entered in order to fool the Antiochenes of their victory, while the Palmyrenes retreated quietly in the night. Aurelian continued his advance, being welcomed into a number of cities, before fighting the Palmyrenes again in a plain before Emesa. There, the Palmyrene cavalry dispersed to pursue the fleeing Roman cavalry, and were again destroyed. Zosimus particularly credits the Palestinian clubmen in being particularly effective in bringing down the iron horsemen of Palmyra. Zenobia retreated to Palmyra, but was unable to retriever her treasury from Emesa, which Aurelian captured. Along the road to the Palmyrene capital, he was harassed by Syrian "brigands and guerrillas" before laying siege to the city. Zenobia fled east on camel however, intent on seeking aid from the Sassanids. However, Aurelian's horsemen caught up with her at the Euphrates and captured her. The Palmyrene Empire had come to an end.
While some in Palmyra advocated continued resistance, most did not and the city surrendered. Aurelian spared it, while taking Zenobia and her advisors to Emesa, where they were tried and most executed, including Zenobia's key adviser, Cassius Longinus. Zenobia and Vaballathus were themselves spared, though the from the latter no more is heard and it is presumed he died on his way to Rome. By 273, Palmyra had revolted once more and Aurelian returned, when it is presumed the city was sacked, though there is archaeological evidence to prove otherwise, though the city would never reattain its former glory. The following year, Aurelian paraded Zenobia in his triumph in "golden chains" to signify her subjugated royal status. Sources now differ on her fate, some implying she was spared by Aurelian on account of her beauty and dignity, and was given a magnificent villa on the Tibur, being married to a senator and becoming a popular Roman matron and philosopher. Others that she died shortly thereafter, perhaps of a hunger strike. It is possible she had descendants as far down as the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.
In the end, the Palymrene Empire's relationship with Rome could be seen as one that went awry. Palmyrene power grew up, especially under Odaenathus's leadership, partly because the city marshaled great economic and military robustness, but also because Palmyra's interests were married to Rome's. Gallienus not only allowed, but even rewarded, Odaenathus's initiative in pursuing the two sets of goals together. Odaenathus was able to invoke the prestige of his Roman honors in the view of Palmyra's neighbors and true competitors. A year or two after Odaenathus died, Zenobia and Vaballathus felt the need to invoke the language of Roman authority for themselves, apparently against hostile neighbors; they also appropriated the mechanisms of Roman power, especially the Roman coinage and the provincial coinage of Egypt. The way they used titles of Vaballathus on the coinage suggests that they sought only to exploit established channels of authority to their own benefit, but in so doing they assumed too much, and provoked Aurelian's response. He in turn forced the Palmyrenes into true rebellion. By suppressing them, along with the "Gallic empire", Aurelian recentered the power of Roman empire, earning him the epithet of "Restitutor Orbis" or "Restorer of the World".
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- Now You Know -
Re: Preview I: The Empire of Palmyra
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Originally Posted by Roman Soldier
Almost 4 months further and still no update
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