WW1 RESEARCH THREAD **QUOTES NEEDED**

[The Vengur]

German standard scope

Pic

[don_Durandal]

Here are some of the models of scopes amongst the dozens used by the German Army in WW1.

Spoiler for German Empire: 

Notice how the Gewehr 98 has the bolt modified (bent instead of straight, with a hole in the wood) to accommodate the presence of the scope.

A model made by Walter Gerard:





A Goerz x3, which was also used by the Austro-Hungarians:



Another one made by Goerz, but this time in x4 which is rather unusual for WW1 scopes:



Scope mounted on a Mannlicher M95: (image taken from "Out of Nowhere - A History of the Military Sniper" by Martin Pegler)

You didn't ask for it, but since I've got those on my HD I might as well post them.
Two of the three models of scopes used by the French in WW1.

Spoiler for France: 

APX model 1916


APX model 1917





French snipers used specially selected and calibrated model 1886/M93 "Lebel" rifles to mount the scopes as they were more accurate than the model 1907/15 "Berthier" rifles. There is photographic evidence of scopes being mounted on the later though.

(image taken from "Out of Nowhere - A History of the Military Sniper" by Martin Pegler)

[don_Durandal]

Once again, I apologise for the double post.
I won’t go too deep this time, as I’m sure you’re got enough sources on the subject already. Here are some pictures to illustrate the armed forces of the United States in the WW1 period.


American Expeditionary Force

Weapons and equipment

Spoiler for Rifles and handguns:  The standard rifle issue rifle of the US Army was the M1903 Springfield. It equipped the USMC and the regular (pre-war) formations of the US Army. With a scope added, it was also the main sniper rifle of the AEF. Due to the American arsenals being unable to cope with the demand for rifles to equip the new regiments of the army, M1917 Enfield rifles (also called P17) were supplied by other manufacturers. About three quarters of the AEF was issued with this rifle. The four regiments of the 93rd infantry division who served under French command were re-equipped with Fusil mle 1907-15 “Berthier” rifles. From the onset the use of shotguns in trench warfare had been an evidence for the US Army, and the Winchester Model 1897 was issued to the AEF from the start. The standard side-arm was the M1911 Pistol. Due to shortages, the M1917 Revolver in .45 ACP was also issued. Spoiler for Machine guns:  The French M1914 Hotchkiss equipped the twelve first divisions who reached France. The British Vickers machine gun equipped eleven divisions, and proved more popular than the Hotchkiss. The US made Browning M1917 MG started reaching the front in fall 1918 and first saw action in September of that year. The main light machinegun of the AEF was the French Fusil mitrailleur mle 1915 CSRG “Chauchat” in its original 8mm variant. The M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle first saw action in September 1918 and equipped about a fourth of US infantry units on the Western front by the end of the war. Spoiler for Artillery:  Due to lack of artillery pieces at the declaration of war, the US Army used a number of foreign models in the Great War. It was planned to use French models for field artillery and British models for heavy and siege artillery, but the French 155mm GPF was found to outclass other models and was eventually adopted for the later role. The French Canon de 75 modèle 1897 was the main field gun used by the US Army in the European theatre. The primary heavy gun was the French Canon de 155 long GPF, adopted under the designation 155mm Gun M1917. Some British BL 9.2 inch Howitzers were also acquired. Heavy artillery support was provided by batteries equipped with either: French Canon de 155 court modèle 1917 (Schneider) (US made version of this howitzer didn’t reach the front in time) or British BL 8 inch Howitzer Mk VIII. For infantry support, the French Canon d’infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP was adopted under the designation 37mm M1916, along with the US 37mm 1-pounder Bethlehem infantry gun. The 3 inch Stokes mortar was logically adopted as the main light mortar in 1917. Six companies were also equipped with 4 inch chemical versions of this weapon. Medium mortars were a mix of French Mortier de 58mm type 2 and British Newton 6 inch mortars. As heavy mortar, the French Mortier de 150 T mle 1917 Fabry was adopted (it was known to the British as the 9.45 inch “Flying Pig”). The US Army did have some American-made models. They were however not or little used in Europe. The 3 inch M1902 was underperforming compared to foreign models. The 4.7 inch M1906/1917 had a respectable performance, but its production was slow and ammunition had to be shipped from the US. The 6 inch M1905, an adapted naval gun, was effectively shipped to France but remained in depots as it was cumbersome and outclassed by the 155 GPF. The 6 inch M1908 howitzer had a maximum range much inferior to allied models and was only used for instruction. Spoiler for Hand and rifle grenades:  The US-made Mk1 grenade proved to be unsatisfactory, and as such the AEF used French F1s and British Mills Bombs. The French Vivien-Bessière rifle grenade with it’s discharger cup was adopted for use on the Springfield and P17. It proved unsatisfactory due to the rounds calibre difference with the French one. The Babbit Rifle Grenade was tried and adopted instead. Spoiler for Flamethrowers:  The US Army produced a number of prototypes during the war, notably Knapsack Flame Projector, Mark I and the Boyd No. 3. The AEF resorted to having French flamethrower detachments attached to their units when required.

US Army

The divisions of the US Army were effectively divided in three types: - Regulars - National Guard - National Army: units formed from volunteers and draftees after the declaration of war. Theses differences were diluted with time as replacements were affected indiscriminately to any division. Spoiler for Infantry:  Spoiler for Cavalry:  Spoiler for Officers and rank insignia:  Note: these ranks markings are relevant only to the US Army (excluding the Engineers and Quartermaster corps). Other branches had specific grades and badges until the 1920 standardization (USMC still do to this day). Spoiler for Colored regiments:  The 93rd Infantry Division was formed from four segregated regiments of “colored” soldiers from National Guard reinforced with draftees. The use of these units in combat was a problematic idea for the prejudiced military establishment of the time. The French Army on the other hand badly needed reinforcements and had no such preconception due to their own use of colonial tirailleurs. The division was thus dissolved and its elements placed under French command. The regiments distinguished themselves in combat alongside French troops. The “Harlem Hellfighters” of the 369th regiment saw the most action of any AEF formation, was the first allied unit to reach the Rhine and, despite suffering heavy casualties, not one hellfighter was ever made prisoner. The 371st was highly praised by French General Gouraud after taking part in the Butte du Mesnil offensive, suffering over half its effectives in casualties in a week. The French were more than satisfied with the service of the black doughboys, and spared neither praised nor decorations to show it, with a high number of Croix de Guerre being awarded. This genuine attitude, bereft of the racism so frequently faced at home, was a refreshing experience for the men of the 93rd. Uniforms and equipment: to ease logistic issues, the four regiments of the 93rd ID were reequipped from French Army stocks, keeping only their M1912 drab uniforms. They were armed with the “Berthier” rifles usually supplied to colonial and North African units.

USMC

Uniform and equipment: the distinguishing feature of the Marines was their forest green P1912/17 uniform which contrasted with the Army’s drab. Over time army uniforms were gradually issued to ease logistic. Marines were almost universally armed with the M1903 Springfield, rather than the M1917 Enfield.

US Navy

Spoiler for references: 

Armes Militaria Magazine – issues No 7, 20, 24, 33, 64, 68, 70, 81, 91, 100, 118 and 119.
Laurent Mirouze, “World War I Infantry in Colour Photographs”
Liliane & Fred Funcken, “L’Uniforme et les Armes des soldats de la Guerre 1914 – 1918”, volume 1.

Some of the published photos have visibly taken some wear due to time, and as such I apologize for the quality of the pictures.

[General Brewster]

Nice !

[B-DizL]

Excellent! Thank you + rep

[don_Durandal]

After posting only about republics, here’s a little change with a monarchy for once:


The Romanian Army 1914 – 1918

Uniforms and equipment

uniforms

The Romanian armed forces had adopted a new field uniform in M1912, in a blue-ish slightly green colour. There were wide variations in the tint of the colour though, and the green tended to fade with time. The trousers were in the same colour and worn with high ankle leather boots, from 1914 on also worn with puttees (indifferently wrapped over or under the boot). Cavalry and artillery had black breeches piped red, worn with riding boots. Branches of service were indicated by the colour of the piping and collar patches. Spoiler for pictures of the 1912 uniform:  The model 1912 uniform was adopted by all service branches in the field, replacing traditional or garrison uniforms (like the hussar-style dress of the cavalry or the bowler hat of the vânâtori). Spoiler for pictures of rank and branch insignia:  From 1917 on shortages of dye means the uniform was issued in its natural fabric colour, i.e. beige-brown. The Adrian helmet was worn from 1916 on, with a royal cipher badge on the front. Spoiler for pictures of the 1917 uniform:  Obsolete and captured uniforms were worn throughout the war, especially amongst militia and older reservists. Amongst those were the old 1895 dark blue uniform, and the traditional fleece hat tilted to the right. Spoiler for pictures of reservists in obsolete uniforms:  You can find more information (with a detailed colour photo) on the 1916 infantry uniform on this reenactor’s website. They also show a gunner in a 1916 artillery uniform Spoiler for more reference pictures:  Those pictures were already uploaded in the research thread. I re-adding them here for convenience.

infantry weapons

The main rifle was the Romanian Mannlicher M1893. Cavalry were equipped with the carbine version of it. Militia and some reservists were still armed with Martini-Henri rifle. Those were replaced in 1916 by Vetterli-Vitali mod.1870/87 rifles supplied by Italy. These were withdrawn in 1917 and replaced by French Fusil Mle 1886 M93 (“Lebel” rifles). The standard sidearm was the Steyr M1912 pistol. The main Machine gun model in 1916 was the PM M1910 “Maxim” MG. From 1917 on however the amount of available machine guns quadrupled with the issuing of French-supplied St-Etienne Mle 1907 and Hotchkiss Mle 1914 MGs. The main light machine gun was the Fusil mitrailleur Mle 1915 CSRG “Chauchat” supplied by France in 1917. The Russian M1912 grenade was the model used until supplies of French grenades became available

Order of Battle

Infantry

Line Infantry regiments (40 regiments) Romania had a well-trained small standing army before the war. However with the expansion of the reserve the manpower had to be diluted. In particular the lack of automatic weapons and officers was endemic to the whole army. Nevertheless moral amongst the common soldier was high; and despite being materially and numerically the underdog, the Romanian infantry divisions managed to carve a few tactical victories for themselves even against the experienced German units. From 1917 the Romanian army was reorganised in the French fashion, with fewer men per units but a stronger emphasis on support weapons. Reserva - Reserve Infantry regiments (40 regiments) The second line reserve was raised from men aged 29-40. With little time to train them properly and a lack of officers to lead them, the reserve divisions became the Achilles’ heel of the Romanian army. Militii - Militia battalions 20 battalions The militia was a third line territorial reserve recruited from men aged 41-46 and led by older reserve officers. Although meant to be static local defences, some units were attached to newly raised ersatz divisions to bulk up numbers. Armed with leftover weapons dating from the 1877 war, and bereft of automatic weapons and artillery support, there’s little those units could do. They were generally untrained and suffered from low moral, sometimes panicking at the first sound of artillery. Vânâtori – (“hunters”) light infantry (10 regiments) The vânâtori were first created in 1860 as light infantry battalions. They were usually better trained than their line equivalents, especially in marksmanship. They also had the honour of mounting the guard at the royal palace, despite not being considered household units. Vânâtori de Munte - mountain rifles (1 regiment) This unit was created in late 1916 as an elite light infantry regiment of three battalions. The existence of specialised mountain units was well justified by the Carpathian Mountains covering the northern parts of the country. Besides their specialised training, mountain rifles were also required to show greater initiative and autonomy. Unsurprisingly, this elite unite became one of the most decorated during the war. Grâniceri - Border guards (1 brigade) The Border Guards were a dual purpose entity, being both part of the army and acting as civilian frontier service. It was created in 1904 from the vânâtori corps. Recruits were carefully selected, being required to be literate and have completed one year of spotless military service beforehand. Border guards were also trained for mountain warfare and performed palace duties on occasions. The border guards performed very well in combat, being both highly aggressive in the attack and tenacious in defence. Jandarmi Pedestri - gendarmerie (15 companies) Like in France, the gendarmerie shared a dual purpose as provost for the armed forces and civilian policies in the rural countryside. Its duties also included the protection of important infrastructures. Nevertheless, the gendarmerie ended up seeing combat on occasions, particularly in 1917.

Cavalry

Rosiori - lancers (12 regiments) The rosiori (literally “the red ones” from their traditional uniform) were the regular cavalry of the Romanian army. They were organised and armed as lancers. In the early engagements the Romanian cavalry proved to be foolhardy to the extreme, making frontal charges against enemy formations, with predictable results. Calarasi - Territorial cavalry (10 regiments) The calarasi (literally “mounted men”) used to be hussar-like cavalry of the Romanian independence (the word “hussar” had been banned though, due to its Hungarian connotation). By WW1 however the duties of regular cavalry had been taken by the rosiori, and the calarasi became a mounted territorial reserve. Although armed and uniformed by the army, they had to provide their own steed. Escorta - Royal escort regiment (3 squadrons)

Artillery

Romanian artillery in WW1 was a mess of different models and calibres in use. The full list would be a headache, so I’ll just list the more relevant models. Field guns: Krupp 7.5cm Model 1903 and older 87mm Krupp M.1897. Light howitzers: Krupp 10.5cm M.12 QF field howitzer and older 105mm Krupp M-1898/09 howitzers. Heavy artillery: obsolete 12cm L/35 sRK 79 “Ringkanone” and lange 15 cm R K 92”Ring Kanone”. Medium mortars: Mortier de 58mm type 2 received from France in 1917. < note: the Krupp 7.5cm M1903 is a commercial model sold to a number of smaller countries with no foundries of their own, sometimes modified to the buyer's request (like the Belgian model 1905). Other users besides Romania: the Ottoman Empire, Belgium, Greece, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark. >

Spoiler for references: 

Armes Militaria Magazine – issues No 122 & 124.
Liliane & Fred Funcken, “L’Uniforme et les Armes des soldats de la Guerre 1914 – 1918”, volume 1.
Andrew Mollo & Pierre Turner, “Army Uniforms of World War I”, Blandford Press 1977
Nigel Thomas Ph.D & Dusan Babac, “Armies in the Balkans 1914 – 18”, Osprey Men-at-Arms 356

[ambien]

After posting only about republics, here’s a little change with a monarchy for once:


The Romanian Army 1914 – 1918

Uniforms and equipment

Spoiler for uniforms:  The Romanian armed forces had adopted a new field uniform in M1912, in a blue-ish slightly green colour. There were wide variations in the tint of the colour though, and the green tended to fade with time. The trousers were in the same colour and worn with high ankle leather boots, from 1914 on also worn with puttees (indifferently wrapped over or under the boot). Cavalry and artillery had black breeches piped red, worn with riding boots. Branches of service were indicated by the colour of the piping and collar patches. Spoiler for pictures of the 1912 uniform:  The model 1912 uniform was adopted by all service branches in the field, replacing traditional or garrison uniforms (like the hussar-style dress of the cavalry or the bowler hat of the vânâtori). Spoiler for pictures of rank and branch insignia:  From 1917 on shortages of dye means the uniform was issued in its natural fabric colour, i.e. beige-brown. The Adrian helmet was worn from 1916 on, with a royal cipher badge on the front. Spoiler for pictures of the 1917 uniform:  Obsolete and captured uniforms were worn throughout the war, especially amongst militia and older reservists. Amongst those were the old 1895 dark blue uniform, and the traditional fleece hat tilted to the right. Spoiler for pictures of reservists in obsolete uniforms:  You can find more information (with a detailed colour photo) on the 1916 infantry uniform on this reenactor’s website. They also show a gunner in a 1916 artillery uniform Spoiler for more reference pictures:  Those pictures were already uploaded in the research thread. I re-adding them here for convenience. Spoiler for infantry weapons:  The main rifle was the Romanian Mannlicher M1893. Cavalry were equipped with the carbine version of it. Militia and some reservists were still armed with Martini-Henri rifle. Those were replaced in 1916 by Vetterli-Vitali mod.1870/87 rifles supplied by Italy. These were withdrawn in 1917 and replaced by French Fusil Mle 1886 M93 (“Lebel” rifles). The standard sidearm was the Steyr M1912 pistol. The main Machine gun model in 1916 was the PM M1910 “Maxim” MG. From 1917 on however the amount of available machine guns quadrupled with the issuing of French-supplied St-Etienne Mle 1907 and Hotchkiss Mle 1914 MGs. The main light machine gun was the Fusil mitrailleur Mle 1915 CSRG “Chauchat” supplied by France in 1917. The Russian M1912 grenade was the model used until supplies of French grenades became available

Roster

Spoiler for Infantry:  Line Infantry regiments (40 regiments) Romania had a well-trained small standing army before the war. However with the expansion of the reserve the manpower had to be diluted. In particular the lack of automatic weapons and officers was endemic to the whole army. Nevertheless moral amongst the common soldier was high; and despite being materially and numerically the underdog, the Romanian infantry divisions managed to carve a few tactical victories for themselves even against the experienced German units. From 1917 the Romanian army was reorganised in the French fashion, with fewer men per units but a stronger emphasis on support weapons. Reserva - Reserve Infantry regiments (40 regiments) The second line reserve was raised from men aged 29-40. With little time to train them properly and a lack of officers to lead them, the reserve divisions became the Achilles’ heel of the Romanian army. Militii - Militia battalions 20 battalions The militia was a third line territorial reserve recruited from men aged 41-46 and led by older reserve officers. Although meant to be static local defences, some units were attached to newly raised ersatz divisions to bulk up numbers. Armed with leftover weapons dating from the 1877 war, and bereft of automatic weapons and artillery support, there’s little those units could do. They were generally untrained and suffered from low moral, sometimes panicking at the first sound of artillery. Vânâtori – (“hunters”) light infantry (10 regiments) The vânâtori were first created in 1860 as light infantry battalions. They were usually better trained than their line equivalents, especially in marksmanship. They also had the honour of mounting the guard at the royal palace, despite not being considered household units. Vânâtori de Munte - mountain rifles (1 regiment) This unit was created in late 1916 as an elite light infantry regiment of three battalions. The existence of specialised mountain units was well justified by the Carpathian Mountains covering the northern parts of the country. Besides their specialised training, mountain rifles were also required to show greater initiative and autonomy. Unsurprisingly, this elite unite became one of the most decorated during the war. Grâniceri - Border guards (1 brigade) The Border Guards were a dual purpose entity, being both part of the army and acting as civilian frontier service. It was created in 1904 from the vânâtori corps. Recruits were carefully selected, being required to be literate and have completed one year of spotless military service beforehand. Border guards were also trained for mountain warfare and performed palace duties on occasions. The border guards performed very well in combat, being both highly aggressive in the attack and tenacious in defence. Jandarmi Pedestri - gendarmerie (15 companies) Like in France, the gendarmerie shared a dual purpose as provost for the armed forces and civilian policies in the rural countryside. Its duties also included the protection of important infrastructures. Nevertheless, the gendarmerie ended up seeing combat on occasions, particularly in 1917. Spoiler for Cavalry:  Rosiori - lancers (12 regiments) The rosiori (literally “the red ones” from their traditional uniform) were the regular cavalry of the Romanian army. They were organised and armed as lancers. In the early engagements the Romanian cavalry proved to be foolhardy to the extreme, making frontal charges against enemy formations, with predictable results. Calarasi - Territorial cavalry (10 regiments) The calarasi (literally “mounted men”) used to be hussar-like cavalry of the Romanian independence (the word “hussar” had been banned though, due to its Hungarian connotation). By WW1 however the duties of regular cavalry had been taken by the rosiori, and the calarasi became a mounted territorial reserve. Although armed and uniformed by the army, they had to provide their own steed. Escorta - Royal escort regiment (3 squadrons) Spoiler for Artillery:  Romanian artillery in WW1 was a mess of different models and calibres in use. The full list would be a headache, so I’ll just list the more relevant models. Field guns: Krupp 7.5cm Model 1903 and older 87mm Krupp M.1897. Light howitzers: Krupp 10.5cm M.12 QF field howitzer and older 105mm Krupp M-1898/09 howitzers. Heavy artillery: obsolete 12cm L/35 sRK 79 “Ringkanone” and lange 15 cm R K 92”Ring Kanone”. Medium mortars: Mortier de 58mm type 2 received from France in 1917. < note: the Krupp 7.5cm M1903 is a commercial model sold to a number of smaller countries with no foundries of their own, sometimes modified to the buyer's request (like the Belgian model 1905). Other users besides Romania: the Ottoman Empire, Belgium, Greece, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark. >

Spoiler for references: 

Armes Militaria Magazine – issues No 122 & 124.
Liliane & Fred Funcken, “L’Uniforme et les Armes des soldats de la Guerre 1914 – 1918”, volume 1.
Andrew Mollo & Pierre Turner, “Army Uniforms of World War I”, Blandford Press 1977
Nigel Thomas Ph.D & Dusan Babac, “Armies in the Balkans 1914 – 18”, Osprey Men-at-Arms 356

Excellent work! Do you have anything similar on the Spanish army?

[don_Durandal]

Excellent work! Do you have anything similar on the Spanish army?

Impossible! Spanish and South American armies are so fixated on gala and parade uniforms, they never show their campaign ones in the reference sources!

j/k. Give me a few days.
(or rather I wasn't entirely joking. It's only 75% true)

[Russ_Ace]

Nice Pics of the USA. I like the USMC pisscutters.

[Wallachian]

Fantastic research don_Durandal, you deserve as much +rep as possible for your exhaustive work.

Just one note, the Romanian Vanatori still wore the Bersglieri type uniform at the start of the war. As seen in this French newspaper article below on the right:



And a reconstruction


Basically for the game's purpose in 1914 the Vanatori wore their special uniforms, resembling the Italian bersaglieri or French chasseurs. As WWI approached Romania and efforts were made to modernize the army and reorganize it, the 10 vanatori battalions were transformed into regiments. During Romania's participation in WWI (starting in 1916), however, they cease to wear their distinctive hats with black feathers and looked like regular infantry.

Some additional notes on the colour of the uniforms:

By the Royal Decree nr. 500 of 4th February 1912, Romanian army adopted a new campaign uniform, influenced by the austro-hungarian model, but made in grey-green (in fact a mixture of grey, green and blue threads of wool) cloth. The predominant colour of these uniforms was green.

During the Second Balkan War, most Romanian troops were equipped with M.1912 uniforms. However, many reservists still had M.1895 uniforms and equipment and, in many cases, even the officers wore a mixture of old and new, grey-green, uniforms.

Between 1914-1916, during the neutrality period, Romanian army was deprived from its main sources of supplies, so the original colours to dye the cloth were not available anymore. Romanian authorities tried to use other paints but the result was not satisfactory. From 1915 in the Romanian army rose a great variety of models of uniforms, with different cuts, made in different types of cloth, from light-blue (horizon blue) to khaki. In 1916 the Allies (Russian, Italians) sent different quantities of their uniforms cloth in Romania, so, the Romanian army appearance became even more variegated. During the 1917-1918, the shortage of cloth was so severe that every piece of tissue was used to make uniforms. Many officers converted civilian clothes into military tunics, heaving civilian bone buttons. For the other ranks, the uniforms were made in un-dyed cloth, as for the Confederacy troops of the American Civil War. In the autumn 1917 romanian army captured great stores of Russian equipment in Moldavia and Bassarabia, so this gave a respite to the Romanian military authorities.

During the intervention in Hungary against soviet Hungarian forces, Romanian troops were equipped with British khaki uniforms and web equipment, delivered by the Allied Danube Army troops, but carried French style Adrian helmets and long Berthier rifles, which gave an unique appearance to the Romanians soldiers.

Source: http://www.worldwar2.ro/forum/index....opic=2885&st=0

Another unit to be added to the roster should be the Transilvanian Volunteers as per below:

Transylvanian romanians made their first attempts to join romanian army in great numbers since 1915, before Romania entering WW1.

A number of 20.000 volunteers were given to the romanian divisions, as oficers, NCO's or soldiers, according to their qualification. (1)

Octavian Goga wanted to create from this transylvanian volunteers an independent great unit, which was to be called "Legiunea ardeleana". It was planned that division to have about 15.000 men. This division never came to life cos the neutral politics of Romania between 1914-1916.
The transylvanians entered war in 1916 as seen above, as soldiers in different romanian divisions.

On 1st september 1916 O. Goga, V. Lucaciu and O. Taslauanu gave a memorium to the Consiliul de Ministri asking for help in order to raise regiments from the ranks of transylvanian romanian POW's in Russia, as ex-AH soldiers. In Russia were as POWs a number between 100.000-120.000 romanians who were previously AH soldiers. An aditional number of 1.816 oficers and 29.000 soldiers romanians were refugees from Transylvania already serving in romanian army at 15 august 1916. (2)

First transylvanian volunteer units arived on Iasi on July 1917 and were distributed on the ranks of following romanian regiments: 26 infantery Rovine, 3 infantery Olt, 19 infantery Caracal and 5 Vanatori from 11th Division.

The first entirelly transylvanian regiments were raised also in 1917 and named I "Turda" and II "Alba Iulia", followed in 1918 by III "Avram Iancu".

The volunteer units were disbanded after the peace from Buftea.

On November 1918 transylvanian volunteers were called again to arms, now under the name "Corpul Voluntarilor" (Volunteer's Corp) and they were completely equiped for battle on 10th november 1918. They were actually 1st Volunteer Corp, the 2nd Volunteer Corp being raised on Siberia under the name "Legiunea romana de vanatori transilvaneni-bucovineni din Siberia (1918-1920).

On 3rd december 1918 1st Volunteer Corp arived in Transylvania.

They were reorganised as following:
- Regiment I "Turda"
- Regiment II "Alba Iulia"
- Regiment III "Avram Iancu"
- Regiment "Horia" - it was a new unit raised in March 1919, later re-named "Beius".

In february arived from Italy the voluntareers organised in "Horea" regiment (not to be confused with the other "Horea"-"Beius" regiment!).
From the volunteers from Italy were raised II "Closca" and III "Crisan" regiments, eventually transformed in batalions with the same name.

On 10 may 1919 the name of "Horea" regiment was transformed in 97 infantry regiment "Odorhei".

Also on 10 may 1919 "Beius" regiment, formerly "Horea" regiment was withrawed from Tisa front at was reorganised as 87 infantry regiment "Beius" from 17th Division

Source: http://www.worldwar2.ro/forum/index.php?showtopic=4677

And a uniform of the Transilvanian Volunteers as per historical re-enactors



Note on tanks in Romanian armies:

The first tanks of the Romanian Army were aquired in 1919. They were Renault FT-17s that had belonged to several French battalions of the Oriental Army operating in the Odessa area. The first instructors were French and the entire doctrine was French. The tanks were seen just as means of supporting the infantry. Seventy-six Renault FT-17 tanks were obtained by Romanian-French collaboration in 1919 and equipped the first Romanian tank battalion. 48 of these tanks were armed with a Puteaux 37mm gun and 28 were armed with a Hotchkiss 8mm machine-gun.

The FT-17 tank in the courtyard of the National Military Museum in Bucharest

[don_Durandal]

As per request, I’ll be covering a monarchy once again.
Note: only units stationed on the Peninsula and in North Africa will be covered. I also won’t cover the Spanish Foreign Legion since it was created in 1920.



The Spanish Armed Forces of King Alfonso XIII

Introduction

The situation of the Spanish armed forces on the eve of the first world war was dire, to say the least! Most of the already antiquated navy had been lost during the Spanish American war in 1898, and Spain lacked the industrial means to rebuild it quickly. The air force was tiny and depended entirely on French models. As for the Army, it had reached the lowest point in its otherwise glorious history. The Spanish Army in 1914 was 140'000 strong. While these numbers were already very small compared to other standing armies in Europe, one has to take in account that more than half of these were stationed in Morocco to counter the Rif insurgency. Worst still, these effectives were bloated by an enormous officer corps accounting for up to a quarter of the armed forces! Victory in the Carlist Wars meant the Army viewed itself as a guarantor of national stability. Generals had a lot of political power and influence over the king and ruling oligarchy. However in the troubled social and political situation of the early XXth century the army leadership became increasingly hostile towards criticism, making any attempt at reforms impossible. Thus by 1914 the Spanish Army was thoroughly outdated and inefficient. Though the army sucked a large part of the Spanish revenue, the excessive number of officers and particularly generals, meant its budget was mostly spent on salaries and allocations. There were little funds left for logistics, and thus the Spanish Army was under-equipped, lacking everything from rifles, to ammunition, artillery pieces and machine guns. Enlisted men and junior officers were badly paid and suffered from low morale. Some officers even had to take on a second job to be able to afford the sumptuous gala uniforms required of their social position. This was further exacerbated by slow and limited chances of advancement, with promotion being done entirely on seniority. The army in Africa stood in stark contrast to this situation. While service in Morocco was very dangerous, it also meant a much better pay and increased chances of promotion. This created a real gulf between "peninsular" officers stationed in Spain and "Africans" serving in Morocco. In light of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 the Spanish Army had attempted to reorganise itself along German Army lines. This fell short however due to inertia amongst the officer corps. German-style universal conscription was never fully introduced, and fell entirely on the poorer classes instead. Other European armies all relied on a standing army fuelled by universal conscription, but with a large reserve mobilised in time of war (for instance in 1914 the French Army had a standing army of 880'000 men but upon mobilisation grew to 3'600'000; the German Army had a standing army of 840'000, but grew to 3'800'000 after recalling reservists of the Reserve, Ersatz Reserve, Landwehr and Landsturm); however Spain effectively lacked these reserves. There were battalions of the "second reserve" which had only a cadre of officers in peacetime but would be bolstered by reservists in wartime; in effect though these were more like social clubs to justify officer salaries, and they never saw service. In 1907 there was an attempt to recall reservists to serve in Morocco, but it caused a riot in Barcelona which ended being brutally repressed by the army.

Recruitment, training and tactics

The standing army was recruited from conscripts doing three years of military service, with a cadre of professional NCOs and officers. Once their military service done, conscripts would enter the active reserve for three years, which would form the third battalion of each regiment when mobilized. Then he’d enter the “second reserve” territorial battalions. Conscripts had the possibility to shorten their service significantly (to five or ten months) in exchange for a payment, which gave a certain advantage to the well-off. They were however still liable for service in case of general mobilisation (something which never happened). They also received the advantage of being able to choose their unit, and to be exempted of service in Africa. Conscription was widely unpopular, especially since it meant serving in the brutal Rif War. This situation was compounded by social unrest in Spain. To make matters worst, the army had lost a lot of prestige in the Spanish-American of 1898. This had created a major rift between the civilian power and the military establishment. The army itself was divided between the “Africans” who served in Morocco and the peninsulars who stayed in Spain. Since 1913 it had been possible to voluntarily enlist for service in Africa for four years (renewable). Those who did received a higher pay (but still only half of what a skilled factory worker earned; however, soldiers were fed and housed); after twelve years of service they received ownership of a terrain to settle in the colonies. Until the formation of the Spanish Foreign Legion in 1920 this system effectively only worked for recruiting regulares. Training and instruction were inadequate by European standards. This got even worse when war dragged on in the Rif and new recruits were barely trained. Infantry companies were taught to attack in guerrilla formations, i.e. flexible open-order lines adapted to the terrain. This required a lot of coordination from sections, and made communication difficult. This could prove dangerous however, as the individual soldier was not sufficiently trained to take advantage of the terrain, nor was individual initiative encouraged. The tactics in use were based on the 1897 and 1910 regulations which introduced tactical groupings staggered in depth, with emphasis given on reserves. Campaign-wise the Spanish army was skilful in the offence, using well-proven and effective tactics. In the Rif wars they usually had no trouble taking enemy positions thanks to well-coordinated artillery fire and infantry movement. Defence was another matter though, and the Spanish infantry often found itself unable to react to the guerrilla threat posed by the Rif natives until Spanish cavalry could come to their rescue.

weapons

The main rifle was the fusil Mauser modelo 1893 (Spanish Mauser model 1893 rifle). It had gained particular notoriety in the Spanish-American war, and prompted the US Army to develop and acquire their Springfield rifle. The cavalry was armed with a shortened version of the above, the carabina Mauser modelo 1895 (Spanish Mauser 1895 carbine). From 1916 on a new upgraded and shortened rifle started being issued: the mosquetón Mauser modelo 1916 (Spanish Mauser model 1916 short rifle). Alongside its better handling compared to the M93 (thanks to its length) it could also fire more powerful ammunition. The official sidearm was the pistola Campo-Giro de 9mm modelo 1913 (Campo-Giro pistol). In 1914 the Spanish army had only 68 machineguns in service. The model was the Hotchkiss M1903 (a French Hotchkiss Mle 1900 machine gun in 7mm Mauser calibre). Due to being unable to purchase more of this type during the war, Spain acquired M1895 Colt-Browning machine guns to equip its cavalry brigades.

uniforms

The uniform worn in 1914-1918 was introduced in 1908 and had changed little since the middle of the 19th century. It was made in azul turquí (dark blue) and in blue-grey for the cavalry. A separate uniform was worn in summer and overseas. However former uniform parts were used until stocks were depleted. A unit could be uniformed in any combination depending on availability. In 1914 the black leather equipment was changed to reddish brown (except artillery, which kept buff leather equipment). It consisted in three ammunition pouches (two in the front, and one in the back) supported by Y straps. In addition individual soldiers carried a water bottle, backpack and haversack. As footwear soldiers were issued ankle boots in brown or black leather. Infantrymen often wore alpargata fabric sandals on campaign instead. Both sandals and boots were worn with trousers tucked into polainas (gaiters) in black or rayadillo fabric. Spoiler for headgear:  The standard field headgear of the Spanish army was the Ros, a low shako slanted towards the back. On campaign it was worn with a cover (oilskin in winter, khaki fabric in summer). A neck flap was also usually worn, as the ros did not protect the neck from the sun, and tended to channel the rain down the collar. The ros was standard in all units, except the cavalry which still wore a taller stovepipe shako. The round brimless forage cap called gorrillo cuartelero redondo (or simply gorro de cuartel) was also worn in the field due to its confort. It was dark blue (except for cavalry which had it in blue-grey) with a band in the branch colour (red for infantry and artillery, green for cazadores, none for the cavalry and guardia civil). Units in Africa were issued with yellowish-beige salacot (pith helmet) of British or French models, although its use was not universal. It was unpopular amongst soldiers who preferred wearing the forage cap whenever possible. From 1914 on it was made in dark khaki green. Spoiler for 1908 uniform:  <for pictures of the 1908 and cavalry 1909 uniforms, see the relevant windows in the army roster lists. Note: the current Spanish royal guard wears parade uniforms based on the 1908 ones> The 1908 uniform was a simplification of earlier designs. It was the standard uniform for all troops (except cavalry) until the introduction of a universal khaki uniform in 1926. It was made in azul turquí (RGB 0/0/128). The straight trousers had two lines down the outer sides and were tucked in black gaiters in campaign dress. The straight collar, shoulder pads and trouser bands were in garance colour, except for cazadores which had them in grass green. Line infantry had red trousers with dark blue bands, but usually replaced them for summer trousers in rayadillo or khaki. The cavalry had adopted a blue-grey uniform in 1909. Unit type was indicated by the tunic’s piping, bands on the breeches and shoulder boards. Lancers: red Dragoons: yellow Cazadores: white The two hussar regiments kept their specific uniform <see the relevant section in the army roster>. Spoiler for 1914 Khaki summer uniform:  The uniform in caqui verdoso-oscuro (dark green khaki) was adopted in 1914 and issued from summer 1915 on. As its name implies, it was worn in summer, while the 1908 blue uniforms were worn in winter. It had a darker tone to distinguish it from the one worn in Africa. It had a guerrera (tunic) with a standing collar, two external breast pockets, plain shoulder boards and seven brass buttons on the front. The corps’ insignia was pinned on both collar’s side (stylised grenade for artillery, tower for engineers, hunting horn for cazadores), except line infantry who had regimental numbers, and cavalry who had specific badges. It was worn with granaderos trousers, breeches that are tight at the calf and flared at the thigh, buttoned from knee to ankle, with a “spat” foot. A light khaki uniform in lentil colour (yellow-beige) had been introduced in Africa in 1910, but gradually fell out of use to be replaced by the rayadillo. Spoiler for Rayadillo:  The rayadillo uniform was made of mil ratlles (striped fabric), white cotton with blue or black stripes. While standard issue in the colonies since the 19th century, it was adopted for summer use on the peninsula in 1910 and remained officially in issue until 1915. In practice however it was still used some years after that. <note: those uniforms worn in the peninsula and Morocco had black stripes. The blue stripes were only worn in the American colonies, and as such are all pre-1898> Spoiler for officers and rank insignia:  Since 1908 officers wore a gorro de plato peaked cap in service dress, replacing the old teresiana kepi. On campaign officers would usually don the same headgear as their men. A blue pelisse hedged in black astrakhan fur was authorized in cold weather for all officers, and for cavalrymen of any rank.

Order of battle

Army: Infantry

Spoiler for infantry and cazadores uniform pictures:  Infanteria de linea - Line infantry (70 regiments) Cazadores – light infantry (23 battalions) Like other European armies of the time, Spain had dedicated light infantry units called cazadores (which, as you guessed, means “hunter” like most other light infantry in Europe). The cazadores were effectively considered an elite as their training and selection was much superior to that of the line infantry. Combat-wise there was little difference between the two types of units however, as tactics and usage between line and light infantry had become muddled by the beginning of the 20th century. Cazadores de montaña – mountain infantry (n.a) The first mountain battalions were created in 1899, but were disbanded again five years later. The necessity to have elite specialised units who new the terrain and could develop tactics specific to the mountains was evident though. In 1918 fourteen battalions of cazadores de montaña were thus raised, some from disbanded light infantry units. Batallones de Segunda Reserva - Second Reserve Battalions (116 battalions) The second reserve battalions were in theory recruited from conscripts who had finished their three years of active service and who would be recalled in time of war. They were organised on a regional basis, with each battalion carrying the name of the locality it would recruit from. In peacetime only a cadre of officers was maintained, with the rest of the effectives to be completed from recalling reservists. In effect this never happened and those battalions were finally dissolved in 1919. Regulares (4 groups, each with 2 infantry and 1 cavalry tabor) Prior to the creation of the regular forces, the Spanish army in Morocco had used a number of native irregular units at given times, disbanding them once the mission they were hired for was completed. The new permanent native forces were thus called “regulars” to distinguish them. As a completely professional force of volunteers the regulares would quickly become elite high-profile units. They proved their worth during the Rif wars, and later were the shock troops of the Spanish nationalists alongside the Legion in the civil war. They possessed natural bravery forged by their Berber tribal culture, and unquestioned discipline and loyalty. Those tabores that were mounted also provided excellent natural horsemen. Spoiler for regulares uniform pictures:  regulares wore a specific cotton uniform in lentil colour, with baggy seroual trousers tightened at the ankle by puttees. Headgear was either a red tarbush or a white (sometimes stripped) turban. A sash was tied around the waste, each group having a different colour. White canvas espadrilles ankle-high were worn instead of boots. Officers wore a peaked cap with a khaki headband and red crown. Paints of mounted and machinegunner regulares by the Spanish painter Jose Ferre Clauzel.

Army: Cavalry

The cavalry regiments of the Spanish army were prestigious units with a long history, each being known by their name (i.e. “Lanceros del Rey”) rather than their number. Each regiment had four combat squadrons and one depot. Spoiler for cavalry uniform pictures:  Lanceros – lancers (8 regiments) Cazadores de caballeria – Mounted rifles (14 regiments and 2 independent squadrons) Dragones – Dragoons (3 regiments) Húsares – Hussars (2 regiments) King Alfonso XIII was particularly fond of these two regiments, the Húsares de Pavia and Húsares de la Princessa, and it is no surprise that his portraits often shown him wearing their gala uniforms. Despite their gaudy parade uniforms, these were fully combat-ready units who saw action in Cuba in 1898 and later in Morocco during the Rif Wars. Spoiler for hussar uniform pictures:  The hussars did not wear their traditional uniforms on campaign (dolman, pelisse and laced breeches), using the short quarter jacket instead. Campaign headgear was a stovepipe shako with a oilskin or white canvas cover. Each regiment had different colour combinations: Húsares de Pavia: red dolman/jacket with light blue collar and cuffs, blue pelisse and breeches, gold piping and laces. Húsares de la Princessa: all light blue with gold piping and laces and a white pelisse. Second reserve cavalry (14 regiments) As with the infantry these only had a cadre of officers in peacetime and were supposed to recruit from reservist in wartime.

Army: artillery

Spoiler for artillery uniforms pictures:  From 1904 until 1917 the Spanish artillery was organised as such: 12 “mounted” regiments of 3 batteries each (in effect field artillery) 1 light regiment with 3 field and one horse battery 1 siege regiment with 4 batteries 3 mountain regiments with four batteries 1 mountain group stationed at the Campo de Gibraltar, with 3 batteries 13 commands of fortress artillery with between 6 and 14 batteries each Equipment The standard field gun since 1908 was the Cañon Schneider T.R. de 7.5cms Mod.1906, a commercial model sold under the designation “Canon de 75 modèle 1905 Schneider” in France (it was also the standard field gun of the Bulgarian Army). From the same company the Spanish acquired their mountain gun, the Cañón de montaña de 7 cm. Tiro rápido. Modelo 1908 (Schneider). Heavy artillery batteries were equipped with Cañon Krupp TR 15 cms Mod. 1913. The Spanish army did not have modern howitzers until 1918, when they acquired a few ”Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider” under the designation Obús Acero de 15,5 cm. Tiro rápido Schneider Modelo 1917. It wouldn’t become standard until 1920 though.

Army: support units

Engineers: 4 regiments of Zapadores (sappers) 1 regiment, Telegrafos (signals) 1 regiment of Pontoneros (pontoniers) 1 regiment, Ferrocarriles (train) 1 company, Aerostacion (aerostats) 4 mixed groups Administration: 16 companies and 10 sections for independent commands Medical corps 16 companies and 10 sections for independent commands Air service The Spanish air service had been created in 1910 as part of the engineer corps, and first saw combat in Morocco in 1913. It was equipped with the following models: Maurice Farman MF.7 Lohner B.1 Pfeil Nieuport IIN, IIG and IVM Morane-Saulnier G.14

Royal guard

Reales Guardias Alabarderos – Royal halberdier guards (2 companies) The Real y Laureado Cuerpo de Reales Guardias Alabarderos was created in 1506 and is the oldest units of the Royal Household. Its duty is to protect the King and royal family, and to guard the interior of the royal palace. Escuadrón de Escolta Real – Royal escort (1 squadron) The Escort was the cavalry element of the Royal guard, and accompanied the King whenever he left the Palace. They were traditionally uniformed and equipped as cuirassiers.

Navy and Marines

Spoiler for Navy and marines uniform pictures:  Infantería de Marina – Naval infantry (3 regiments) The Spanish Naval infantry is the oldest existing Marine Corps in the world, having been founded in 1537. It is an elite unit, part of the royal household. Its missions included amphibious warfare, colonial warfare and overseas garrisoning. Navy In 1914 the Spanish Navy had the following ships: 2 battleships 3 armoured cruisers 3 protected cruisers 5 destroyers 9 torpedo boats 14 gunboats

Paramilitary units and others

Guardia Civil - Gendarmerie (130 infantry and 15 mounted companies) The Guardia Civil is the Gendarmerie of Spain. They were created in the middle of the XIXth century to counter the widespread banditry in the peninsula. Their role was expended to deal with the many revolts and civil wars that shook Spain in the 19th and early 20th century. They were organised as a mobile lightly armed corps, with cavalry and light infantry. More so than its other European counterparts, it took an active part in all Spanish conflicts, be it the Spanish-American, Rif and civil wars. Spoiler for Guardia Civil pictures:  Carabineros – Border guards (30 infantry regiments and 7 mounted companies) The carabineros were frontier guards operating mainly on the Pyrenean border. Their main task was the prevention of smuggling, but they also received military training and drills. Fuerzas Jalifianas – Sharifian forces (5 Mehal-la, each with 3 tabores) The Sharifian Mehal-las were originally the palace guard of the Sultan of Morocco. Unlike the regulares they were nominally part of the protectorate of Morocco and not the Spanish army. Although trained by Spanish instructors, they had their own officers. They were fully combat-operational units and not just a local Gendarmerie. During the civil war they were placed under Nationalist command by the Moroccan governor. After independence, they became the core of the new Moroccan army. Uniform: soldiers of the Sharifian Mehal-las wore the same uniform as the regulares, but in dark khaki green. Officer’s peaked cap had a red band and green crown. Milicias del Requeté (about 10’000 individual requetés) The requetés were militias of the right-wing carlist movement, royalists who supported a branch rival to the monarchy in place. They existed since the XIXth century and caused a bloody six-years long civil war in 1834. They were recruited mostly from the traditionalist region of Navarre; however during the civil war tercios of requetés were formed from nationalist regions of the whole country. Requeté were fanatically devoted to the church and their cause and opposed every single government that took power, only begrudgingly joining the nationalists in the Spanish Civil war. Nevertheless they were very well-trained, and their blind religious devotion (they considered war to be a modern crusade) meant they were always assigned the toughest missions in the Civil War. Spoiler for requeté pictures:  They wore all kinds of uniforms (if any at all), their distinguishing feature being a red boina (Basque beret) and a “sacred heart” badge worn on the left breast.

If that wasn’t enough, someone else did a good contemporary painting guide for the Spanish Army here.



Previous WW1 armies full overviews:
French Army
Switzerland and the Swiss Army
American Expeditionary Force
Romanian Army

[General Brewster]

don dural could you do that for the Dutch ?
Want to see what you get up.

[don_Durandal]

don dural could you do that for the Dutch ?
Want to see what you get up.

I’ll see if that’s possible, but I wouldn’t keep my hope up. So far with neutral armies (Switzerland and Spain) I used exclusively native sources, and alas I can’t speak Dutch.
Unless sources are in a language I can read the best I can do is guesswork, and that’s clearly unacceptable for research.

I was working on the Polish Legions and the post-war independent Polish state (cue emergents!) before Spain distracted me, so I’ll finish that first before moving on.

[General Brewster]

I’ll see if that’s possible, but I wouldn’t keep my hope up. So far with neutral armies (Switzerland and Spain) I used exclusively native sources, and alas I can’t speak Dutch.
Unless sources are in a language I can read the best I can do is guesswork, and that’s clearly unacceptable for research.

I was working on the Polish Legions and the post-war independent Polish state (cue emergents!) before Spain distracted me, so I’ll finish that first before moving on.

Hmm alright we'll see then

[King Sama]

As per request, I’ll be covering a monarchy once again.
Note: only units stationed on the Peninsula and in North Africa will be covered. I also won’t cover the Spanish Foreign Legion since it was created in 1920.



The Spanish Armed Forces of King Alfonso XIII

Recruitment, training and tactics

The standing army was recruited from conscripts doing three years of military service, with a cadre of professional NCOs and officers. Once their military service done, conscripts would enter the active reserve for three years, which would form the third battalion of each regiment when mobilized. Then he’d enter the “second reserve” territorial battalions. Conscripts had the possibility to shorten their service significantly (to five or ten months) in exchange for a payment, which gave a certain advantage to the well-off. They were however still liable for service in case of general mobilisation (something which never happened). They also received the advantage of being able to choose their unit, and to be exempted of service in Africa. Conscription was widely unpopular, especially due to the brutal Rif War. The social unrest in Spain didn’t help either. To further compound things, the army had lost a lot of prestige in the Spanish-American of 1898. This had created a major rift between the civilian power and the military establishment. The army itself was divided between the “Africans” who served in Morocco and the peninsulars who stayed in Spain. Since 1913 it had been possible to voluntarily enlist for service in Africa for four years (renewable). Those who did received a higher pay (although still half of that received by a skilled factory worker, soldiers were fed and housed); after twelve years of service they received ownership of a terrain to settle in the colonies. Until the formation of the Spanish Foreign Legion in 1920, this system only really worked for regulares. Training and instruction was usually inadequate, especially by European standards. This got even worse when war dragged on in the Rif and new recruits had barely been trained. Infantry companies were taught to attack in guerrilla formations, i.e. flexible open-order lines adapted to the terrain. This required a lot of coordination from sections, and made communication difficult. This could prove dangerous however, as the individual soldier was not sufficiently trained to take advantage of the terrain, nor was individual initiative encouraged. The tactics in use were based on the 1897 and 1910 regulations which introduced tactical groupings staggered in depth, with emphasis given on reserves. Campaign-wise the Spanish army was skilful in the offence, using well-proven and effective tactics. In the Rif wars they usually had no trouble taking enemy positions thanks to well-coordinated artillery fire and infantry movement. Defence was another matter though, and the Spanish infantry often found itself unable to react to the guerrilla threat posed by the Rif natives until cavalry was engaged.

weapons

The main rifle was the fusil Mauser modelo 1893 (Spanish Mauser model 1893 rifle). It had gained particular notoriety in the Spanish-American war, and prompted the US Army to develop and acquire their Springfield rifle. The cavalry was armed with a shortened version of the above, the carabina Mauser modelo 1895 (Spanish Mauser 1895 carbine). From 1916 on a new upgraded and shortened rifle started being issued: the mosquetón Mauser modelo 1916 (Spanish Mauser model 1916 short rifle). Alongside its better handling compared to the M93 (thanks to its length) it could also fire more powerful ammunition. The official sidearm was the pistola Campo-Giro de 9mm modelo 1913 (Campo-Giro pistol). In 1914 the Spanish army had a grand total of 68 machineguns in service, most of which were Hotchkiss M1903 (a French Hotchkiss Mle 1900 machine gun in 7mm Mauser calibre). Due to being unable to purchase more of this type during the war, Spain acquired M1895 Colt-Browning machine guns to equip its cavalry brigades instead.

uniforms

The uniform worn in 1914-1918 was introduced in 1908 and had changed little since the middle of the 19th century. It was made in azul turquí (dark blue) and in blue-grey for the cavalry. A separate uniform was worn in summer and overseas. However former uniform parts were used until stocks were depleted. A unit could be uniformed in any combination depending on availability. In 1914 the black leather equipment was changed to reddish brown (except artillery, which kept buff leather equipment). It consisted in three ammunition pouches (two in the front, and one in the back) supported by Y straps. In addition individual soldiers carried a water bottle, backpack and haversack. As footwear soldiers were issued ankle boots in brown or black leather. Infantrymen often wore alpargata fabric sandals on campaign instead. Both sandals and boots were worn with trousers tucked into polainas (gaiters) in black or rayadillo fabric. Spoiler for headgear:  The standard field headgear of the Spanish army was the Ros, a low shako slanted towards the back. On campaign it was worn with a cover (oilskin in winter, khaki fabric in summer). A neck flap was also usually worn, as the ros did not protect the neck from the sun, and tended to channel the rain down the collar. The ros was standard in all units, except the cavalry which still wore a taller stovepipe shako. The round brimless forage cap called gorrillo cuartelero redondo (or simply gorro de cuartel) was also worn in the field due to its confort. It was dark blue (except for cavalry which had it in blue-grey) with a band in the branch colour (red for infantry and artillery, green for cazadores, none for the cavalry and guardia civil). Units in Africa were issued with yellowish-beige salacot (pith helmet) of British or French models, although its use was not universal. It was unpopular amongst soldiers who preferred wearing the forage cap whenever possible. From 1914 on it was made in dark khaki green. Spoiler for 1908 uniform:  <for pictures of the 1908 and cavalry 1909 uniforms, see the relevant windows in the army roster lists. Note: the current Spanish royal guard wears parade uniforms based on the 1908 ones> The 1908 uniform was a simplification of earlier designs. It was the standard uniform for all troops (except cavalry) until the introduction of a universal khaki uniform in 1926. It was made in azul turquí (RGB 0/0/128). The straight trousers had two lines down the outer sides and were tucked in black gaiters in campaign dress. The straight collar, shoulder pads and trouser bands were in garance colour, except for cazadores which had them in grass green. Line infantry had red trousers with dark blue bands, but usually replaced them for summer trousers in rayadillo or khaki. The cavalry had adopted a blue-grey uniform in 1909. Unit type was indicated by the tunic’s piping, bands on the breeches and shoulder boards. Lancers: red Dragoons: yellow Cazadores: white The two hussar regiments kept their specific uniform <see the relevant section in the army roster>. Spoiler for 1914 Khaki summer uniform:  The uniform in caqui verdoso-oscuro (dark green khaki) was adopted in 1914 and issued from summer 1915 on. It had a darker tone to distinguish it from the one worn in Africa. It had a guerrera (tunic) with a standing collar, two external breast pockets, plain shoulder boards and seven brass buttons on the front. The corps’ insignia was pinned on both collar’s side (stylised grenade for artillery, tower for engineers, hunting horn for cazadores), except line infantry who had regimental numbers, and cavalry who had specific badges. It was worn with granaderos trousers, breeches that are tight at the calf and flared at the thigh, buttoned from knee to ankle, with a “spat” foot. A light khaki uniform in lentil colour (yellow-beige) had been introduced in Africa in 1910, but gradually fell out of use to be replaced by the rayadillo. Spoiler for Rayadillo:  The rayadillo uniform was made of mil ratlles (striped fabric), white cotton with blue or black stripes. While standard issue in the colonies since the 19th century, it was adopted for summer use on the peninsula in 1910 and remained officially in issue until 1915. In practice however it was still used some years after that. <note: those uniforms worn in the peninsula and Morocco had black stripes. The blue stripes were only worn in the American colonies, and as such are all pre-1898> Spoiler for officers and rank insignia:  Since 1908 officers wore a gorro de plato peaked cap in service dress, replacing the old teresiana kepi. On campaign officers would usually don the same headgear as their men. A blue pelisse hedged in black astrakhan fur was authorized in cold weather for all officers, and for cavalrymen of any rank.

Order of battle

Army: Infantry

Spoiler for infantry and cazadores uniform pictures:  Infanteria de linea - Line infantry (70 regiments) Cazadores – light infantry (23 battalions) Like other European armies of the time, Spain had dedicated light infantry units called cazadores (which, as you guessed, means “hunter” like most other light infantry in Europe). The cazadores were effectively considered an elite as their training and selection was much superior to that of the line infantry. Combat-wise there was little difference between the two types of units however, as tactics and usage between line and light infantry had become muddled by the beginning of the 20th century. Cazadores de montaña – mountain infantry (n.a) The first mountain battalions were created in 1899, but were disbanded again five years later. The necessity to have elite specialised units who new the terrain and could develop tactics specific to the mountains was evident though. In 1918 fourteen battalions of cazadores de montaña were thus raised, some from disbanded light infantry units. Batallones de Segunda Reserva - Second Reserve Battalions (116 battalions) The second reserve battalions were in theory recruited from conscripts who had finished their three years of active service and who would be recalled in time of war. They were organised on a regional basis, with each battalion carrying the name of the locality it would recruit from. In peacetime only a cadre of officers was maintained, with the rest of the effectives to be completed from recalling reservists. In effect this never happened and those battalions were finally dissolved in 1919. Regulares (4 groups, each with 2 infantry and 1 cavalry tabor) Prior to the creation of the regular forces, the Spanish army in Morocco had used a number of native irregular units at given times, disbanding them once the mission they were hired for was completed. The new permanent native forces were thus called “regulars” to distinguish them. As a completely professional force of volunteers the regulares would quickly become elite high-profile units. They proved their worth during the Rif wars, and later were the shock troops of the Spanish nationalists alongside the Legion in the civil war. They possessed natural bravery forged by their Berber tribal culture, and unquestioned discipline and loyalty. Those tabores that were mounted also provided excellent natural horsemen. Spoiler for regulares uniform pictures:  regulares wore a specific cotton uniform in lentil colour, with baggy seroual trousers tightened at the ankle by puttees. Headgear was either a red tarbush or a white (sometimes stripped) turban. A sash was tied around the waste, each group having a different colour. White canvas espadrilles ankle-high were worn instead of boots. Officers wore a peaked cap with a khaki headband and red crown. Paints of mounted and machinegunner regulares by the Spanish painter Jose Ferre Clauzel. Civil War era regulares. Appart from the lack of straight collar, the uniform had changed little by then (shameless justification for including this image as reference).

Army: Cavalry

The cavalry regiments of the Spanish army were prestigious units with a long history, each being known by their name (i.e. “Lanceros del Rey”) rather than their number. Each regiment had four combat squadrons and one depot. Spoiler for cavalry uniform pictures:  Lanceros – lancers (8 regiments) Cazadores de caballeria – Mounted rifles (14 regiments and 2 independent squadrons) Dragones – Dragoons (3 regiments) Húsares – Hussars (2 regiments) King Alfonso XIII was particularly fond of these two regiments, the Húsares de Pavia and Húsares de la Princessa, and it is no surprise that his portraits often shown him wearing their gala uniforms. Despite their gaudy parade uniforms, these were fully combat-ready units who saw action in Cuba in 1898 and later in Morocco during the Rif Wars. Spoiler for hussar uniform pictures:  The hussars did not wear their traditional uniforms on campaign (dolman, pelisse and laced breeches), using the short quarter jacket instead. Campaign headgear was a stovepipe shako with a oilskin or white canvas cover. Each regiment had different colour combinations: Húsares de Pavia: red dolman/jacket with light blue collar and cuffs, blue pelisse and breeches, gold piping and laces. Húsares de la Princessa: all light blue with gold piping and laces and a white pelisse. Second reserve cavalry (14 regiments) As with the infantry these only had a cadre of officers in peacetime and were supposed to recruit from reservist in wartime.

Army: artillery

Spoiler for artillery uniforms pictures:  From 1904 until 1917 the Spanish artillery was organised as such: 12 “mounted” regiments of 3 batteries each (in effect field artillery) 1 light regiment with 3 field and one horse battery 1 siege regiment with 4 batteries 3 mountain regiments with four batteries 1 mountain group stationed at the Campo de Gibraltar, with 3 batteries 13 commands of fortress artillery with between 6 and 14 batteries each Equipment The standard field gun since 1908 was the Cañon Schneider T.R. de 7.5cms Mod.1906, a commercial model sold under the designation “Canon de 75 modèle 1905 Schneider” in France (it was also the standard field gun of the Bulgarian Army). From the same company the Spanish acquired their mountain gun, the Cañón de montaña de 7 cm. Tiro rápido. Modelo 1908 (Schneider). Heavy artillery batteries were equipped with Cañon Krupp TR 15 cms Mod. 1913. The Spanish army did not have modern howitzers until 1918, when they acquired a few ”Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider” under the designation Obús Acero de 15,5 cm. Tiro rápido Schneider Modelo 1917. It wouldn’t become standard until 1920 though.

Army: support units

Engineers: 4 regiments of Zapadores (sappers) 1 regiment, Telegrafos (signals) 1 regiment of Pontoneros (pontoniers) 1 regiment, Ferrocarriles (train) 1 company, Aerostacion (aerostats) 4 mixed groups Administration: 16 companies and 10 sections for independent commands Medical corps 16 companies and 10 sections for independent commands Air service The Spanish air service had been created in 1910 as part of the engineer corps, and first saw combat in Morocco in 1913. It was equipped with the following models: Maurice Farman MF.7 Lohner B.1 Pfeil Nieuport IIN, IIG and IVM Morane-Saulnier G.14

Royal guard

Reales Guardias Alabarderos – Royal halberdier guards (2 companies) The Real y Laureado Cuerpo de Reales Guardias Alabarderos was created in 1506 and is the oldest units of the Royal Household. Its duty is to protect the King and royal family, and to guard the interior of the royal palace. Escuadrón de Escolta Real – Royal escort (1 squadron) The Escort was the cavalry element of the Royal guard, and accompanied the King whenever he left the Palace. They were traditionally uniformed and equipped as cuirassiers.

Navy and Marines

Spoiler for Navy and marines uniform pictures:  Infantería de Marina – Naval infantry (3 regiments) The Spanish Naval infantry is the oldest existing Marine Corps in the world, having been founded in 1537. It is an elite unit, part of the royal household. Its missions included amphibious warfare, colonial warfare and overseas garrisoning. Navy In 1914 the Spanish Navy had the following ships: 2 battleships 3 armoured cruisers 3 protected cruisers 5 destroyers 9 torpedo boats 14 gunboats

Paramilitary units and others

Guardia Civil - Gendarmerie (130 infantry and 15 mounted companies) The Guardia Civil is the Gendarmerie of Spain. They were created in the middle of the XIXth century to counter the widespread banditry in the peninsula. Their role was expended to deal with the many revolts and civil wars that shook Spain in the 19th and early 20th century. They were organised as a mobile lightly armed corps, with cavalry and light infantry. More so than its other European counterparts, it took an active part in all Spanish conflicts, be it the Spanish-American, Rif and civil wars. Spoiler for Guardia Civil pictures:  Carabineros – Border guards (30 infantry regiments and 7 mounted companies) The carabineros were frontier guards operating mainly on the Pyrenean border. Their main task was the prevention of smuggling, but they also received military training and drills. Fuerzas Jalifianas – Sharifian forces (5 Mehal-la, each with 3 tabores) The Sharifian Mehal-las were originally the palace guard of the Sultan of Morocco. Unlike the regulares they were nominally part of the protectorate of Morocco and not the Spanish army. Although trained by Spanish instructors, they had their own officers. They were fully combat-operational units and not just a local Gendarmerie. During the civil war they were placed under Nationalist command by the Moroccan governor. After independence, they became the core of the new Moroccan army. Uniform: soldiers of the Sharifian Mehal-las wore the same uniform as the regulares, but in dark khaki green. Officer’s peaked cap had a red band and green crown. Milicias del Requeté (about 10’000 individual requetés) The requetés were militias of the right-wing carlist movement, royalists who supported a branch rival to the monarchy in place. They existed since the XIXth century and caused a bloody six-years long civil war in 1834. They were recruited mostly from the traditionalist region of Navarre; however during the civil war tercios of requetés were formed from nationalist regions of the whole country. Requeté were fanatically devoted to the church and their cause and opposed every single government that took power, only begrudgingly joining the nationalists in the Spanish Civil war. Nevertheless they were very well-trained, and their blind religious devotion (they considered war to be a modern crusade) meant they were always assigned the toughest missions in the Civil War. Spoiler for requeté pictures:  They wore all kinds of uniforms (if any at all), their distinguishing feature being a red boina (Basque beret) and a “sacred heart” badge worn on the left breast.

If that wasn’t enough, someone else did a good contemporary painting guide for the Spanish Army here.



Previous WW1 armies full overviews:
French Army
Switzerland and the Swiss Army
American Expeditionary Force
Romanian Army

This is actually exactly what I needed.

[Wallachian]

Is Spain going to be completely redone? Wouldn't have thought it was such an important faction since it was neutral, but i guess we can change history in the game.

[B-DizL]

Well they are the largest country not involved in the war and a major trading partner so it would be really fun to get them into the mix when your playing as the central powers.

[General Brewster]

Well they are the largest country not involved in the war and a major trading partner so it would be really fun to get them into the mix when your playing as the central powers.

Then The Netherlands deserves accurate units too!

[mAIOR]

Well they are the largest country not involved in the war and a major trading partner so it would be really fun to get them into the mix when your playing as the central powers.

Why central powers? I see spain more likely to join the Entente than the central powers.



Cheers...

[Handgun_Hero]

Why central powers? I see spain more likely to join the Entente than the central powers.



Cheers...

If you play a Spanish campaign, you'll notice that within 2-3 turns, France goes to war with you and after a while will bring Britain or Russia against you too, eventually forcing you to fight for the Central Power's. I am yet to be able to put myself on side with the Entente in game because of the French. This probably needs to be addressed though.

Spain is a game changer in the campaign. If you're playing on the Central Powers side of the war, generally you find yourself overwhelmed by so many enemies. Spain can change that, because they're the only neutral faction that is capable of tackling other major nations. Furthermore, they also dominate the trade posts in the southwest part of the map and have the most ports, so getting on their bad side wouldn't be a good idea. Spain's resources, large number of ports, and geographic location gives it the opportunity to become filthy rich in the campaign. It's a vital trade partner. And at the same time, it's size and recruitment capabilities allows it to hold it's own. There's nothing really special about it's troops in game though, with the exception of the Guardias De Infanteria.

And if you play as Spain in the campaign, you generally find yourself either on the Central Power's side (France seems to want to take Spain on, usually bringing in Britain and Russia with them) or fighting for both sides for your own imperial ambitions.

I find the Spanish campaign to be highly enjoyable, much like the Austro-Hungarian and Italian campaigns. And being the size that it is and the major influence it can have on the war, it probably deserves just as much attention that Belgium and the Ottomans have been receiving.