Roma Surrectum II Presents: The Roman Legions (2)

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The Roman Legions: Historical Background



The Marian Reforms

With his election as Consul in 107 BC, and his subsequent appointment as commander of the Roman legions in Numidia, Marius faced a difficult challenge. Invasions of Germanic Cimbri and Teuton tribes into southern Gaul had forced large Roman armies to counter them. Thoroughly defeated in every engagement, Rome faced a manpower crisis similar to those faced during Hannibal's offensive in the Second Punic War. Prior to Marius, Rome recruited its main legionary force from the landowning citizen classes, men who could equip themselves and who supposedly had the most to lose in the case of Roman defeat.

Especially since the end of the Punic Wars and conquests in the east, the small landowning classes had dwindled to dangerous numbers. Wealthy senatorial aristocrats and equestrian elite land owners bought up small farms from struggling families and worked them with vast numbers of imported slaves. The jobless and landless mobs in Rome swelled out of control and led directly to the rise of the Gracchi, who championed political reform for the common citizens. By the time Marius came to power, the typical Roman recruiting base was literally non-existent. There simply weren't enough landowners available who weren't already fighting the Germanics or Jugurtha to field a new army.

Marius offered the disenfranchised masses permanent employment for pay as a professional army, and the opportunity to gain spoils on campaign along with retirement benefits, such as land. With little hope of gaining status in other ways, the masses flocked to join Marius in his new army. Besides gaining an army to confront the Germanic tribes, he also gained the loyalty of these men. The recruiting of the masses changed the entire relationship between citizens, generals, the Senate and Roman institutional ideology. Before Marius, armies fought for the survival or the expansion of the state, including their own lands, but after Marius, they fought for their Legate who gave them equipment and salaries, and who they came to like. With nowhere to return to in Rome or beyond, these new soldiers became career full-time professional soldiers, serving terms from 20 to 25 years. Now the Legates with their armies fought for their own glory. This extreme loyalty to the Legate led to rebellion and civil war as epitomised by Julius Caesar, who with his legions gained supreme power. Eventually this led to the crowning of the emperors.

Besides the social impact of Marius' decision, he made several major changes to legion structure and tactical formations. Most importantly, he mostly replaced the maniple structure which consisted of four distinct legionary units (though it did continue as a style of formation at least until the mid 1st century AD). Each used different weapons, served different purposes tactically and were arranged in varying sizes and formations, essentially based on the class of citizen they were recruited from. Each soldier in the pre-Marian system provided his own gear and armour, resulting in wide ranges in quality and completeness. Marius supplied his new army's gear partially through the resources of the state, and through his own vast wealth. In the future, most new recruits would be uniformly equipped through the state treasury or their recruiting general.

To replace the maniple as a formation, the cohort was adopted (though the formation had been used in moderation at least since the Punic Wars). Each soldier was equipped the same and assigned to one of six identical centuries of 80 men, making up the cohort unit. There were then 10 cohors of 480 men making up a legion, which standardized the entire system. The legion was made into a single large cohesive unit with interchangeable parts, capable of tactical flexibility not available with the complex structure of the Republican manipular system. The long single lines used prior to Marius were also eliminated in favour of a tiered 3 cohort deep battle line. This allowed rapid and easy support or rotating of fresh troops into combat.

Additionally, officers began to be recruited from within the ranks on a regular basis. While political appointments and promotions based on social or client status would still occur, this now allowed the common soldier a way of advancing based on merit. This improved the strength of the legion as a whole and instilled confidence in the soldiers, knowing their officers were capable leaders, not favoured clients of Senators in Rome. Marius, while adopting uniform gear for all, such as the gladius and scutum, also made significant changes to the common legionary spear (the pilum). It was made for the point to break off upon impact, making it ineffective to be thrown back by the enemy.

To eliminate another problem, the way the soldier's kit and baggage were carried was completely adjusted. From this point on, the legionary would carry their entire standard package including weapons, armour, food, tents, supplies and tools. The "Marius' Mules" allowed bulky, slow and cumbersome baggage trains to be shortened, making the infantry faster and more efficient. Finally, the legionary standards of the Eagle, wolf, minotaur, horse and boar were reduced to a single standard. The Eagle, representing Jupiter Optimus Maximus, replaced them all as the single symbol or loyalty, duty and pride among the soldiers.[/SIZE][/FONT]


Third Servile War

In 73 BC, one out of every three people living in Italy was a slave. Slaves were considered property, their life and death depended on their master. Only the strongest among them were trained as gladiators to fight and die in the roman arenas.

The Third Servile War (73-71 BC), also called the Gladiator War, was a rebellion of slaves, lead by Spartacus, Crixus and Oenomaus. In 73 BC, a group of 78 gladiators (according to Plutarch), managed to escape from the Capuan ludus of Lentulus Batiatus, eventually gathering a force of up to 120,000 supporters over the course of the rebellion. Little is known of Spartacus’ life prior to being captured and made a Gladiator. Even his Thracian origins are doubtful, as he was a Thraex Gladiator, so that the title "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of combat in which he was trained.

Rome dispatched a force of 3,000 ill trained militia, lead by the praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber, which was annihilated at Mount Vesuvius by the ingenuity of the Gladiators. A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched and defeated as well. With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, swelling their ranks to some 70,000 men in the winter of 73/72 BC.

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The historians Plutarch and Appian left significantly different descriptions of what happened next:
According to Plutarch, in the spring of 72 BC, the slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul. The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under command of Crixus, and killed two-thirds of the rebels, including Crixus himself. However, Spartacus managed to defeat both Legions and continued his march north where he defeated yet another Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers, led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus.

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At this point, the slave army could have crossed the Alps unhindered, thus reaching relative safety and escaping the influence of Rome.
The very successes of their army against Roman legions may have been their undoing. Spartacus wished to continue north to relative freedom from Roman interference, but victories, with the confidence and plunder they provided, had a powerful effect. Many of the Germanics and Gauls wished to stay in Italy and reap the rewards of their success. Rather than escape himself with a smaller army, Spartacus, either with visions of grandeur himself, or feeding off the power of a large force, next turned south. Some have suggested Rome itself was the target, but a rendezvous with Cilician pirates seems a more likely course. If they would not cross the Alps, his army may have been willing to cross to Sicily or even Africa as an alternative. Nevertheless, Spartacus and his army that had swelled to 120,000 men did move south. In the mountains near Thurii, they set up camp and gained much supply from local trade and plunder from raids. Equipping themselves into an appropriate military force, the slave army had grown from a minor nuisance to a formidable and legitimate power. The Senate, now facing this power, as it easily won victory after victory, looked to an experienced commander to deal with the threat. The current Consular commanders were withdrawn and the Propraetor Marcus Licinius Crassus was appointed to the special command. Crassus too command with 6 new legions and the four remaining veteran legions, making it quite apparent that Spartacus was considered a serious threat.

With M. Licinius Crassus in command, the tide was about to turn in the Romans favor. Initially, an over eager subordinate of Crassus led an attack on Spartacus that failed miserably.

In this defeat several Romans fled the battle in the face of the gladiator army. In order to put an end to the terrible performance of the legions against Spartacus, Crassus ordered the seldom used penalty of decimation as punishment.

In decimation, one of every ten men is beaten to death by their own fellow legionaries. While ancient reports are conflicting, at least one full cohort was subjected to decimation, or possibly his entire force. Whether those put to death numbered around 50 men or 4,000 is in dispute, but there was no question among legionaries that Crassus was not a man to accept defeat with grace.
Crassus then moved his entire body against a detached segment of Spartacus' forces. Crassus wiped out 10,000 of the rebel slaves commanded by Crixus, who had seperated from spartacus and the main army. Spartacus fled to Rhegium, across the straits from Sicily, with the hope of securing passage to the island, but was never able to secure passage with Cilician pirates.

Crassus pursued and built an extensive length of earthworks across the entire toe of Italy, trying to hem Spartacus in. At first Crassus was successful in trapping the slave army in, but the Senate viewed this as a demoralizing siege against an inferior foe. The great general Pompey was just returning from Spain, and they offered him an additional command to put an end to Spartacus once and for all.
Crassus was eager to achieve the victory himself and avoid sharing anything with his successful rival. He stepped up the pressure on Spartacus until he finally had little choice but to attempt a breakout. Unable to secure the passage to Sicily that he coveted, a breakout against the siege was ordered. While they did manage to escape, Spartacus lost a tenth of his army, or nearly 12,000 men. Free from Crassus' siege, Spartacus moved towards Brundisium, in the heel of Italy, where he still hoped to secure escape by sea.
The Romans were closing in, however, and an escape to Brundisium would never happen. Marcus Licinius Lucullus, fresh from a victory over Mithridates in the east, landed there with a full compliment of legionaries. Spartacus had little choice but to face his pursuers. Facing a full Roman army in open battle, especially one under adequate command, was something Spartacus tried to avoid, but in 71 BC, the slave army and the Romans met near Brundisium.

Spoiler Alert, click show to read: 

In the battle the inspired Romans dominated the slaves, and they were cut down in huge numbers. By the end, Spartacus himself was wounded and likely killed (his body was never found). Crassus swept survivors and stragglers out of the surrounding countryside by the thousands, and prepared a horrific, if not intimidating punishment. Up to 6,000 rebellious slaves were spaced out along the Appian Way, from Rome to Capua. Here they were crucified and left to rot as a reminder to all future potentials rebellions. Pompey meanwhile had moved into Italy with his legions from Hispania. He swept out any remaining resistance and claimed final victory in the war. Pompey enjoyed a triumph for his 'victory' in Hispania, while Crassus was given the lesser honor of an ovation for his victory over mere slaves. The incident was an additional thorn in the side of a growing rivalry between Crassus and Pompey.

As the rivals stood on Rome's door step with full armies, both were elected Consul for 70 BC, despite Pompey's youth and lack of previous offices. Despite their rivalry, both men seemingly worked well enough together to repeal many of Sulla's unpopular laws. Pompey would soon be commissioned for further exploits in the east while Crassus would remain in Rome to continue amassing his fortune and influencing the politics of the 60's BC.


The first triumvirate:

Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and Lucius Lucceius. The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.
Caesar was already in Crassus's political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey, who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia. Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who was elected to the consulship for the following year.

Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".
This also gave rise to this lampoon-
The event occurred, as I recall, when Caesar governed Rome-
Caesar, not Bibulus, who kept his seat at home.
When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over. With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul(northern Italy) and Illyricum (the western Balkans), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.

Julius Caesar
Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortion[57] or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, Illyricum and Gallia Narbonensis, bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the Aedui had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic Suebi under Ariovistus, who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the Helvetii were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.
He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the Belgic tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the Armorican peninsula.
During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern Lucca) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and Clodius' populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey. The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the Aquitani of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the Morini and Menapii of the coastal Low Countries still held out.
In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic Usipetes and Tencteri, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter. He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival, Cassivellaunus, to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by Ambiorix of the Eburones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece Octavia in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband Gaius Marcellus, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of Parthia. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married Cornelia, daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.
In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Arverni. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered.
Titus Labienus was Caesar's most senior legate during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of propraetor. Other prominent men who served under him included his relative Lucius Julius Caesar,[68] Crassus' sons Publius and Marcus, Cicero's brother Quintus, Decimus Brutus, and Mark Antony.
Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were enslaved. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed.Almost the entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered. Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the Helvetii left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign. However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants.Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men.
The pre–Civil War politico–military situation
Caesar’s Civil War resulted from the long political subversion of the Roman Government’s institutions, begun with the career of Tiberius Gracchus, continuing with the Marian reforms of the legions, the bloody dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and completed by the First Triumvirate over Rome.
The First Triumvirate (so denominated by Cicero), comprising Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, ascended to power with Caesar’s election as consul, in 59 BC. The First Triumvirate was unofficial, a political alliance the substance of which was Pompey’s military might, Caesar’s political influence, and Crassus’s money. The alliance was further consolidated by Pompey’s marriage to Julia, daughter of Caesar, in 59 BC. At the conclusion of Caesar’s first consulship, the Senate, rather than granting him a provincial governorship -- tasked him with watching over the Roman forests; this job, specially-created by his Senate enemies, was meant to occupy him without giving him command of armies, or garnering him wealth and fame. Caesar, with the help of Pompey and Crassus, evaded the Senate's decrees by legislation passed through the popular assemblies. By these acts, Caesar was promoted to Roman Governor of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul. Transalpine Gaul (southern France) was added later. The various governorships gave Caesar command of an army of four legions. The term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the customary one year.
In 52 BC, at the First Triumvirate’s end, the Roman Senate supported Pompey as sole consul; meanwhile, Caesar had become a military hero and champion of the people. Knowing he hoped to become consul when his governorship expired, the Senate, politically fearful of him, ordered he resign command of his army. In December of 50 BC, Caesar wrote to the Senate agreeing to resign his military command if Pompey followed suit. Offended, the Senate demanded he immediately disband his army, or be declared an enemy of the people — an illegal political bill, for he was entitled to keep his army until his term expired. A secondary reason for Caesar’s immediate want for another consulship was delaying the inevitable senatorial prosecutions awaiting him upon retirement as governor of Illyricum and Gaul; said potential prosecutions were based upon alleged irregularities occurred in his consulship, and war crimes committed in his Gallic campaigns. Moreover, Caesar loyalists, the tribunes Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) and Quintus Cassius Longinus, vetoed the bill, and were quickly expelled from the Senate. They then joined Caesar, who had assembled his army, whom he asked for military support against the Senate; agreeing, his army called for action.
In 50 BC, at his Proconsular term’s expiry, the Pompey-led Senate ordered Caesar’s return to Rome and the disbanding of his army, and forbade his standing for election in absentia for a second consulship; because of that, Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and rendered politically marginal if he entered Rome without consular immunity or his army — to wit, Pompey accused him of insubordination and treason.

The Great Roman Civil War:

Crossing the Rubicon
On 10 January 49 BC, leading one legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, General Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, the boundary between the Cisalpine Gaul province, to the north, and Italy proper, to the south, a legally-proscribed action forbidden to any army-leading general. The proscription protected the Roman Republic from a coup d'état (internal military threat); thus, Caesar's military action began a civil war. This act of war on the Roman Republic by Caesar led to widespread disapproval amongst the Roman civilians, who believed him a traitor. The historical record differs about which decisive comment Caesar made on crossing the Rubicon — one report is Alea iacta est (usually translated as "The die is cast").

The March on Rome and the early Hispanian campaign
Caesar’s March on Rome was a triumphal progress; yet, the Senate, ignorant of Caesar’s being armed only with a single legion, feared the worst and supported Pompey, who, on grasping the Republic’s endangerment, said: “Rome cannot be defended”, and escaped to Capua — with his politicians, the aristocratic Optimates and the regnant consuls; Cicero later characterised Pompey’s “outward sign of weakness” as allowing Caesar’s politico-military consolidation to achieve Roman dictatorship.
Despite having retreated, at his central-Italian bivouac, Pompey was armed with two legions, some 11,500 soldiers (he earlier had ordered Caesar return to Italy from Gaul), and some hastily-levied Italian troops commanded by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (Domitius). As Caesar progressed southwards, so Pompey retreated southwards, to Brundisium, from whence he repeatedly ordered Domitius north to combat and stop Caesar’s Roman march (then south-bound, along the eastern coast); his inaction — repeated refusal of Pompey’s combat orders — gave Caesar the initiative to attack and defeat Domitius’s Pompeian armies in bivouac. In the event, Pompey escaped to Brundisium, there awaiting sea transport for his legions, to Epirus, in the Republic’s eastern Greek provinces — expecting his influence to yield money and armies for a maritime blockade of Italy proper. Meanwhile, the aristocrats (the Optimates) — including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger — joined Pompey there, whilst leaving a rear guard at Capua.
Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, expecting restoration of their alliance of ten years prior; to wit, throughout the Great Roman Civil War’s early stages, Caesar frequently proposed to Pompey that they, both generals, sheathe their swords. Pompey refused, legalistically arguing that Caesar was his subordinate and thus was obligated to cease campaigning and dismiss his armies before any negotiation. As Consul of Rome, Pompey commanded legitimacy, whereas Caesar’s military crossing of the Rubicon River frontier de jure rendered him a de facto enemy of the Senate and People of Rome. Nevertheless, in March of 49 BC, Pompey escaped Caesar at Brundisium, fleeing by sea to Epirus, in Roman Greece.
Advantaging himself of Pompey’s absence from the Italian mainland, Caesar effected an astonishingly fast 27-day, north-bound forced march to destroy, in the Battle of Ilerda, Hispania’s politically leader-less Pompeian army, commanded by the legates, Lucius Afranius (Afranius) and Marcus Petreius (Petreius), afterwards pacifying Hispanic Rome; in campaign, the Caesarian forces — six legions, 3,000 cavalry (Gallic campaign veterans), and Caesar’s 900-horse personal bodyguard — suffered 700 men killed in action, while the Pompeian forces lost 200 men killed and 600 wounded. Returned to Rome in December of 49 BC, Caesar was dictator for eleven days, tenure sufficient to win him Consular election, afterwards, he renewed pursuit of Pompey, then in Roman Greece.

The Greek and African campaigns
At Brundisium, Caesar assembled an army of some 15,000 soldiers, and crossed the strait of Otranto to Epirus, in Greece. In that time, Pompey considered three courses of action: (i) alliance with the King of Parthia, an erstwhile ally, far to the east; (ii) invade Italy with his naval superiority; and (iii) confronting Julius Caesar in decisive battle. A Parthian alliance was unfeasible, a Roman general fighting Roman legions with foreign troops was craven; and the military risk of an Italian invasion was politically unsavoury, because, the Italians (who thirty years earlier had rebelled against Rome) might rise against him; thus, on councilor’s advice, Pompey decided to fight Julius Caesar in decisive battle.
Moreover, Caesar’s pursuing him to Illyrium, across the Adriatic Sea, decided the matter, and, on 10 July 48 BC, Pompey fought him in the Battle of Dyrrhachium, costing Caesar 1,000 veteran legionnaires and a retreat. Disbelieving that his army had bested Caesar’s legions, Pompey misinterpreted the retreat as a feint to a trap, and refused to give chase for the decisive, definitive coup de grâce — thus losing the initiative, and the chance to quickly conclude Caesar’s Civil War; meanwhile, Caesar retreated southwards. Near Pharsalus, Caesar pitched a strategic bivouac, and Pompey attacked, yet, despite his much larger army, was conclusively defeated by Caesar's troops. A major reason for Pompey's defeat was a miscommunication among front cavalry horsemen.

The Egyptian dynastic struggle
Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy XIII. In Rome in the meantime, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after eleven days and was elected to a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus as his colleague. He pursued the Pompeian army to Alexandria, where they camped and became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regnant queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he fathered his only known biological son, Ptolemy XV Caesar, better known as "Caesarion". Caesar and Cleopatra never married, due to Roman law that prohibited a marriage with a non-Roman citizen.

The war against Pharnaces
After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, he went to Syria, and then to Pontus to deal with Pharnaces II, a client king of Pompey's who had taken advantage of the Romans being distracted by their civil war to oppose the Roman-friendly Deiotarus and make himself the ruler of Colchis and lesser Armenia. At Nicopolis he had defeated what little Roman opposition Caesar's Asian lieutenant Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus could muster. He had also taken the city of Amisus, which was a Roman ally, made all the boys eunuchs and sold the inhabitants to slave traders. After this show of strength against the Romans, Pharnaces drew back to suppress revolt in his new conquests.
Nevertheless, the extremely rapid approach of Caesar in person forced Pharnaces to turn his attention back to the Romans. At first, recognizing the threat, he made offers of submission, with the sole object of gaining time until Caesar's attention fell elsewhere; Caesar's speed brought war quickly and battle took place near Zela (modern Zile in Turkey), where Pharnaces was routed with just a small detachment of cavalry. Caesar's victory was so swift and complete that, in a letter to a friend in Rome, he famously said of the short war, “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) – indeed, for his Pontic triumph, that may well have been the label displayed above the spoils.
Pharnaces himself fled quickly back to the Bosporus, where he managed to assemble a small force of Scythian and Sarmatian troops, with which he was able to gain control of a few cities; however, a former governor of his, Asandar, attacked his forces and killed him. The historian Appian states that Pharnaces died in battle; Dio Cassius says Pharnaces was captured and then killed.

The later campaign in Africa: the war on Cato
Caesar returned to Rome to deal with several mutinous legions. While Caesar had been in Egypt installing Cleopatra as Queen, four of his veteran legions encamped outside of Rome under the command of Mark Antony. The legions were waiting for their discharges and the bonus pay Caesar had promised them before the battle of Pharsalus. As Caesar lingered in Egypt, the situation quickly deteriorated. Antony lost control of the troops and they began looting estates south of the capital. Several delegations of diplomats were dispatched to try to quell the mutiny. Nothing worked and the mutineers continued to call for their discharges and back pay. After several months, Caesar finally arrived to address the legions in person. Caesar knew he needed these legions to deal with Pompey's supporters in north Africa, who had mustered 14 legions of their own. Caesar also knew that he did not have the funds to give the soldiers their back pay, much less the money needed to induce them to reenlist for the north African campaign.
When Caesar approached the speaker's dais, a hush fell over the mutinous soldiers. Most were embarrassed by their role in the mutiny in Caesar's presence. Caesar asked the troops what they wanted with his cold voice. Ashamed to demand money, the men began to call out for their discharge. Caesar bluntly addressed them as "citizens" instead of "soldiers," a tacit indication that they had already discharged themselves by virtue of their disloyalty. He went on to tell them that that they would all be discharged immediately. He said he would pay them the money he owed them after he won the north African campaign with other legions. The soldiers were shocked. They had been through 15 years of war with Caesar and they had become fiercely loyal to him in the process. It had never occurred to them that Caesar did not need them. The soldiers' resistance collapsed. They crowded the dais and begged to be taken to north Africa. Caesar feigned indignation and then allowed himself to be won over. When he announced that he would suffer to bring them along, a huge cheer arose from the assembled troops. Through a brilliant combination of personal charisma and reverse psychology, Caesar reenlisted four enthusiastic veteran legions to invade north Africa without spending a single sesterce.
In the same year he set out for Africa, where the followers of Pompey had fled, to end their opposition led by Cato.
Caesar quickly gained a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who was drowned) and Cato the Younger and Juba (who both committed suicide).

The second Hispanian campaign: end of the Caesar’s Civil War
Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus (Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War) escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague).

Year of the four emperors:
The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.
The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief period of civil war, the first Roman civil war since Mark Antony's death in 30 BC. Between June of 68 and December of 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian Dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious repercussions, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion.

Nero to Galba
In 65, the Pisonian conspiracy attempted to restore the Republic, but failed. A number of executions followed leaving Nero with few political allies left in the Senate. In late 67 or early 68, Caius Julius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis rebelled against Nero's tax policy, with the purpose of substituting Servius Sulpicius Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, for Nero.
Vindex's revolt in Gaul was unsuccessful. The legions stationed at the border to Germania marched to meet Vindex and confront him as a traitor. Led by Lucius Verginius Rufus, the Rhine army defeated Vindex in battle and Vindex killed himself. Galba was at first declared a public enemy by the Senate.
By June of 68, the Senate took the initiative to rid itself of Nero, declaring him a public enemy and Galba emperor. Nymphidius Sabinus, desiring to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero. Nero committed suicide. Galba was recognized as emperor and welcomed into the city at the head of his legions, which were: VI Victrix, I Macriana liberatrix, I Adiutrix, III Augusta and VII Gemina.

Galba to Otho
This turn of events gave the German legions not the reward for loyalty that they had expected, but rather accusations of having obstructed Galba's path to the throne. Their commander, Rufus, was immediately replaced by the new emperor. Aulus Vitellius was appointed governor of the province of Germania Inferior. The loss of political confidence in Germania's loyalty also resulted in the dismissal of the Imperial Batavian Bodyguards and rebellion.
Galba did not remain popular for long. On his march to Rome, he either destroyed or took enormous fines from towns that did not accept him immediately. In Rome, Galba cancelled all the reforms of Nero, including benefits for many important persons. Like his predecessor, Galba had a fear of conspirators and executed many senators and equites without trial. The army was not happy either. After his safe arrival to Rome, Galba refused to pay the rewards he had promised to soldiers who had supported him. Moreover, in the start of the civil year of 69 in January 1, the legions of Germania Inferior refused to swear allegiance and obedience to the new emperor. On the following day, the legions acclaimed Vitellius, their governor, as emperor.
Hearing the news of the loss of the Rhine legions, Galba panicked. He adopted a young senator, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus, as his successor. By doing this he offended many people, and above all Marcus Salvius Otho, an influential and ambitious man who desired the honour for himself. Otho bribed the Praetorian Guard, already very unhappy with the emperor, to his side. When Galba heard about the coup d'état he went to the streets in an attempt to normalize the situation. It proved a mistake, because he could attract no supporters. Shortly afterwards, the Praetorian Guard killed him in the Forum.
Otho's legions: XIII Gemina and I Adiutrix

Otho to Vitellius
Otho was recognised as emperor by the Senate that same day. The new emperor was saluted with relief. Although ambitious and greedy, Otho did not have a record for tyranny or cruelty and was expected to be a fair emperor. However, trouble in the form of Vitellius was marching down on Italy from Germany.
Vitellius had behind him the finest elite legions of the empire, composed of veterans of the Germanic Wars, such as I Germanica and XXI Rapax. These would prove to be his best arguments to gain power. Otho was not keen to begin another civil war and sent emissaries to propose a peace and inviting Vitellius to be his son-in-law. It was too late to reason; Vitellius' generals had half of his army heading to Italy. After a series of minor victories, Otho was defeated in the Battle of Bedriacum. Rather than flee and attempt a counter-attack, Otho decided to put an end to the anarchy and committed suicide. He had been emperor for a little more than three months.
Vitellius' legions: I Germanica, V Alaudae, I Italica, XV Primigenia, I Macriana liberatrix, III Augusta, and XXI Rapax
Otho's legions: I Adiutrix

Vitellius to Vespasian
On the news of Otho's suicide, Vitellius was recognised as emperor by the Senate. Granted this recognition, Vitellius set out for Rome. However, he faced problems from the start of his reign. The city was left very skeptical when Vitellius chose the anniversary of the Battle of the Allia (in 390 BC), a day of bad auspices according to Roman superstition, to accede to the office of Pontifex Maximus.
Events would seemingly prove them right. With the throne tightly secured, Vitellius engaged in a series of feasts, banquets (Suetonius refers to three a day: morning, afternoon and night) and triumphal parades that drove the imperial treasury close to bankruptcy. Debts were quickly accrued and money-lenders started to demand repayment. Vitellius showed his violent nature by ordering the torture and execution of those who dared to make such demands. With financial affairs in a state of calamity, Vitellius took the initiative of killing citizens who named him as their heir, often together with any co-heirs. Moreover, he engaged in a pursuit of every possible rival, inviting them to the palace with promises of power only to have them assassinated.
Meanwhile, the legions stationed in the African province of Ægyptus (Egypt) and the Middle East provinces of Iudaea (Judea/Palestine) and Syria had acclaimed Vespasian as emperor. Vespasian had been given a special command in Judaea by Nero in 67 with the task of putting down the Great Jewish Revolt. He gained the support of the governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus. Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria where he had been acclaimed Emperor on July 1, thereby gaining control of the vital grain supplies from Egypt. Vespasian's son Titus remained in Judaea to deal with the Jewish rebellion. Before the eastern legions could reach Rome, the Danubian legions of the provinces of Raetia and Moesia also acclaimed Vespasian as Emperor in August, and led by Marcus Antonius Primus invaded Italy. In October, the forces led by Primus won a crushing victory over Vitellius' army at the Second Battle of Bedriacum.
Surrounded by enemies, Vitellius made a last attempt to win the city to his side, distributing bribes and promises of power where needed. He tried to levy by force several allied tribes, such as the Batavians, only to be refused. The Danube army was now very near Rome. Realising the immediate threat, Vitellius made a last attempt to gain time and sent emissaries, accompanied by Vestal Virgins, to negotiate a truce and start peace talks. The following day, messengers arrived with news that the enemy was at the gates of the city. Vitellius went into hiding and prepared to flee, but decided on a last visit to the palace. There he was caught by Vespasian's men and killed. In seizing the capital, they burned down the temple of Jupiter.
The Senate acknowledged Vespasian as emperor on the following day. It was December 21, 69, the year that had begun with Galba on the throne.
Vitellius legions: XV Primigenia Vespasian legions: III Augusta, I Macriana liberatrix


The Dacian Wars

Before Trajan returned to Rome in AD 99 to assume his place as 'emperor', he assured the loyalty of his legions in the north and prepared for an other invasion into Dacia. Earlier campaigns against the Dacians as well as against Germanic tribes across the Danube by Domitian had met with some success, but the Dacian King Decebalus, who had remained in power as a thorn in the proverbial Roman side, had spent the better part of the last decade securing his position and preparing armies in the Roman style. Thanks in large part to engineers provided by Domitian, Decebalus had fortified the approaches into his kingdom and created a formidable obstacle to Roman dominance of the region. As Decebalus raised his status to one that was among the most capable enemies in Roman history, Trajan had little choice but to plan a campaign to eliminate the threat.

Though the new emperor was a soldier at heart, he also understood the necessity of making political arrangements in Rome before entirely focusing his energy elsewhere. The year AD 100 was spent in Rome both honoring Nerva, ultimately with deification, and building a sense of governing authority within the Senate. The imperial court was minimal in comparison and Trajan preferred a low key approach to government. Throughout his reign he would rely upon provincial governors to make decisions on their own merits and defer to the emperor only it matters of extreme importance. Thanks to Pliny the Younger, the provincial governor whose correspondence with Trajan is largely extant, a vivid portrait of Trajan's style can be seen. In effect, his rule was much like that of a general using subordinate officers in a military sense. Like Nerva, Trajan continued the popular measures that punished the delators (informers) for their part in creating administrative disorder and he reduced the power of the Praetorians and reformed the court system. For his deeds in continuing and perfecting the social welfare system known as the alimenta, he earned the name Optimus, or best, from the people. In the short time that he stayed in Rome, Trajan prepared the Roman world for 60 years of steady and effective leadership.

The First Dacian War
All the while he stayed in Rome however the emperor's sights were set across the Danube. The great historian Tacitus, a contemporary of Trajan, had published his work 'Germania' in this time period, initiating public propaganda that would support military expeditions to the north. Though Trajan's target never quite fell in line with Tacitus' expectations, there was likely wide public and aristocratic approval, thanks in part to the historians' efforts. Trajan raised two legions prior to launching an attack, II Traiana and XXX Ulpia (so numbered as it was the 30th active legion at the time) and shifted existing legionary placement to support a large scale campaign. By the spring of AD 101 plans were settled and the emperor marched north with an army that would eventually involve as many as 11 legions.

Unfortunately the details of Trajan's campaign are largely lost to history. Dio Cassius' account is partially fragmented and lacking the military attentions of past writers, such as Caesar. The other notable historians of the era, Suetonius, Tacitus, etc. did not focus much attention on the reigns of contemporary emperors but instead wrote largely about events prior to their own lifetimes. Despite this, we do know that the Dacian War was a combination of difficult fighting mixed with marvels of engineering. The defenses of Decebalus were impressive and Trajan was required to use the vaunted discipline and perseverance of the Roman army to succeed. With the service of the engineer Apollodorus of Damascus, the Romans completed immense road works along the Danube, begun a century earlier under Tiberius, and defeated the difficulty of logistics and hazardous terrain.

In a great feat of engineering and architecture, Apollodorus designed a road straight up to and through the Iron Gates of the Danubian gorges by cantilevering it from the sheer rock face. This marvel of technology essentially allowed the legions to walk on top of the river as they made their way into the Carpathian Mountains.

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A significant battle was fought at Tapae in AD 101 (the sight of a previous battle under Domitian in AD 89) on the approach to the Dacian capital of Sarmizegethusa. According to Dio Cassius keeping with the tradition of Trajan as a compassionate commander, "(Trajan) engaged the foe, and saw many wounded on his own side and killed many of the enemy. And when the bandages gave out, he is said not to have spared even his own clothing, but to have cut it up into strips. In honor of the soldiers who had died in the battle he ordered an altar to be erected and funeral rites to be performed annually." Soon after the Romans advanced upon the Dacian capital and Decebalus was forced to capitulate. Surprisingly, the powerful leader was left in power as a client king to Rome, but he agreed to raze his fortresses, surrender weapons and prisoners and likely paid a sizeable tribute (though Dio doesn't provide any detail.)
Temporarily victorious and having been rewarded the title Dacicus, Trajan returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph. He entertained the people with gladiatorial games and rewarded his officers for their service in the campaign. The celebration was short-lived though as Decebalus may have mistakenly compared the conviction of Trajan to that of Domitian. After his 'defeat' to Domitian (in which the Romans actually paid a tribute to Decebalus in order to keep the peace) he was allowed to rebuild his army and defense systems virtually unopposed. After this more recent defeat however, similar actions that effectively broke the peace arrangements were met with swift and decisive imperial response.


The Second Dacian War
In preparation for another Danube crossing, Trajan again turned to his engineer Apollodarus for project of unprecedented military grandeur. A massive stone bridge spanning over 3,500 feet (1,100 meters) in length and 60 feet (19 meters) in width was built using enormous wooden arches set upon 20 stone and cement pillars. Built over the course of 2 years, this bridge became the primary source of traffic to and from Dacia. Despite finally being purposely destroyed a century and a half later by Aurelian as the Romans pulled out of Dacia, it was to remain for more than a thousand years the longest bridge that had ever been built.

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Unlike the first conflict, the second war involved several skirmishes that proved costly to the Roman military, who, facing large numbers of allied tribes, struggled to attain a decisive victory. Eventually, however, Rome prevailed and took Dacia. An assault against the capital Sarmisegetusa took place at the beginning of the summer of 106 with the participation of the legions II Adiutrix and IV Flavia Felix and a detachment (vexillatio) from Legio VI Ferrata. The Dacians repelled the first attack, but the Romans destroyed the water pipes to the Dacian capital. The city was burned to the ground. Decebalus fled, but committed suicide rather than face capture. Nevertheless, the war went on. Thanks to the treason of a confidant of the Dacian king, Bicilis, the Romans found Decebalus's treasure in the River Sargesia.

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Dacia was immediately annexed as an imperial province, and many new colonies were founded laying a foundation for Roman influence that lasts into the present day. In fact, Romania, the modern equivalent to a portion of Dacian territory speaks a language that claims to be the most closely related modern tongue to that of ancient Latin. Additionally, again thanks to Apollodorus, Trajan left two impressive monuments commemorating his victory. The Tropaeum Traiani (restored in the late 20th century after 2 millennia of slow decay) in modern Adamclisi stands atop a hill and its visibility from great distances was a constant reminder of Rome's power. In Rome, Apollodorus built one of the great lasting treasures of imperial architecture. Trajan's Column is a sculpted pillar, standing 100 Roman feet tall, with 23 rings depicting a vast assortment of images relaying the history of the Dacian Wars. While it served as an unparalleled piece of propaganda glorifying the emperor and his achievements, it also stands today as an invaluable primary source of information into the Roman legions and ancient warfare.

Trajan's Column

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When Trajan returned to Rome in AD 106, he did so with a vast treasure. According to Trajan's ancient contemporary Cryton 'the sum of five million gold and twice as much silver' was taken. Though this number is difficult to translate into modern equivalents one scholar, Jerome Carcopino, roughly translated this immense sum to 180 tons (165,000 kg) of gold and 360 tons (331,000 kg) of silver. With this enormous haul Trajan was able to secure the health of the imperial treasury, finance projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marshes and provide a triumph that was unrivaled in the long history of Rome. 123 straight days of gladiatorial games were held, including fights between as many as 10,000 pairs of gladiators and the death of 11,000 animals. With his popularity among the people and the aristocracy at an unrivaled peak, even embassies from as far away as India came to Rome to pay respects to the man who was commonly becoming regarded as the greatest Emperor since Augustus, if not the greatest of all.

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Legio I Germanica:



History:

Legio I Germanica


Legio I Germanica, the German legion, was a Roman legion, possibly levied in 48 BC by Julius Caesar to fight for him in the civil war against Pompey. After the Batavian rebellion (70), the remaining men of the Germanica were added to Galba's seventh legion, which became VII Gemina. The emblem of Legio I is unknown, but it was probably Taurus, like all the other legions levied by Caesar.

There are two theories about I Germanica recruitment. The most favored is that it was raised by Julius Caesar in 48 BC to fight in the civil war against Pompey. In that case it would have fought in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. A second theory attributes its recruitment to Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus, a partisan of Caesar, who died in the Battle of Forum Gallorum against Marc Antony in 43 BC. Legio I would have been recruited in that year for that campaign. However recruited, Legio I was inherited by Augustus and therefore ought to have been entitled to the cognomen 'Augusta' after distinguished service under his eyes; however, there was no Legio I Augusta. One explanation is that an event happened to prevent or take away that name.

The career of Legio I subsequent to the civil wars remains unknown for sure. It is believed to be identical to the Legio I that took part in the Spanish campaign against the Cantabrians conducted for Augustus by Marcus Agrippa and was disgraced there. Inscriptions on Spanish coins indicate that between 30 and 16 BC, some Legio I was stationed in Hispania Taraconensis, where they would have fought in the war against the Cantabrians. Dio Cassius (54.11.5) says that one legion was stripped of its title, Augusta, after suffering reverses in that campaign. The two references are believed to be to the same legion, accounting for its early missing title and emblem.

Around the turn of the century, Legio I appears on the Rhine frontier. The Annales of Tacitus state that they received standards from Tiberius, but when that was is not clear. This statement is problematic because only new or reconstituted legions received standards. The legion could have been reconstituted after Spain, but more likely it kept its aquila (which was only taken away on disbandment) and received new vexillae, or manipular standards, which would indicate a reorganization with perhaps replacements. The legion soon redeemed itself by winning the title 'Germanica', for its distinguished service in Germania. Exactly when they won it is not known. They were initially stationed at Oppidum Ubiorum (Cologne) in the jurisdiction that was to become Germania Inferior. For the time being, the province contained five legions and was under Publius Quinctilius Varus.

In AD 9, Varus and three legions were lured away to the north to suffer extinction in the Battle of Teutoburg forest. Fortunately for Legio I, he had not taken his entire command but left two legions in camp under legati or junior officers, Legio I being commanded by a nephew of Varus, Lucius Asprenas. Most likely, the title Germanica was granted for service in Drusus' subsequent punitive and exploratory campaigns against the Germanic tribes. Drusus was extremely popular. It was an honour to be in his service and he made sure that his men were honoured properly.

When Nero died in the year 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, arrived. The Senatus Populusque Romanus could not decide on a suitable replacement for Nero. The various candidates fought for the distinction, introducing confusion on the Rhine frontier. The result was a general breakaway of the Celtic and Germanic tribes along the Rhine. They were categorically known as the Belgae at that time. Historians styled it the 'Batavian rebellion' of 70. In essence the tribes along the Rhine believed that the Roman Empire was finished and decided to set up a rump state in Gaul ruled from Triers by Gaius Julius Civilis. They managed to convince four legions and most of Gaul to swear allegiance to it. I Germanica was one of them, a fatal move for them. Units that tried to hold out against changing allegiance were attacked.

The victor of that infamous year of contention was Emperor Vespasian. He sent eight legions under Quintus Petillius Cerialis to the Rhine to clarify matters. On his approach, the four renegade legions repented and sought refuge in the future Alsace-Lorraine region on the left bank of the Rhine. Gaul repudiated the government at Triers, which begged finally for terms. Cerealis was lenient and forgave everyone. However, Legio I did not return to station. After the pacification was complete, Vespasian himself came to the Rhine and disbanded two legions, one of which was I Germanica. Enthusiasts of the Roman army would like to think that the men of the disbanded legions went into two new legions formed by Vespasian at that time. Disbandment, however, was a severe punishment, which would not have much point if the discharged men went right back into the army in some other legion. Perhaps some men were allowed to re-enlist on the basis of individual merit. There is no evidence of any reconstitution of legions involving extensive elements of the disbanded ones. Vespasian simply replaced the discarded legions with newly recruited ones.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Coolus Type C

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Screenshots:

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Some shots:

Legio II Augusta:



History:

Legio II Avgvsta

Legio II Augusta was levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in the 4th century. Its emblems were the Capricornus, Pegasus and Mars. II Augusta was originally raised by Octavian and consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, to fight against Mark Anthony; II Augusta fought in the battle of Philippi and in the battle of Perugia. At the beginning of Augustus rule, in 25 BC, this legion was relocated in Hispania, to fight in the Cantabrian Wars, which definitively established Roman power in Hispania, and later camped in Hispania Tarraconensis. With the annihilation of Legio XVII, XVIII and XIX in the battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9), II Augusta moved to Germania, possibly in the area of Mainz. After 17, it was at Argentorate (modern Strasbourg).

The legion participated in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. The future Emperor Vespasian was the legion's commander at the time and led the campaign against the Durotriges tribe. Although it was recorded as suffering a defeat at the hands of the Silures in 52, the II Augusta proved to be one of the best legions, even after its disgrace during the uprising of queen Boudica, when its praefectus castrorum, who was then its acting commander (its Legatus and Tribunes probably being absent with the governor Suetonius Paulinus), contravened Suetonius' orders to join him and so later committed suicide. After the defeat of Boudica, the legion was dispersed over several bases; from 66 to around 74 it was stationed at Glevum (modern Gloucester), and then moved to Isca Silurum (modern Caerleon), building a stone fortress that the soldiers occupied until the end of the 3rd century. The legion also had connections with the camp at Alchester in Oxfordshire; stamped tiles record it in the second century at Abonae (Sea Mills, Bristol) on the tidal shore of the Avon (Princeton Encyclopedia).

In 122, II Augusta helped to build Hadrian's Wall.

In 196, II Augusta supported the claim for the purple of the governor of Britannia, Clodius Albinus, who was defeated by Septimius Severus. In occasion of the Scottish campaign of Severus, the Second moved to Carpow, to return to Caerleon under Alexander Severus.

Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.

Coolus Type C

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Screenshots:

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Legio III Augusta:




History:

Legio III Augusta Iterum Pia Iterum Vindex

Legio III Augusta Pia Vindex (Faithful Avenger) was a Roman legion levied by Augustus in 43 BC. Activity of this legion in the African Roman provinces, its principal theatre of operations, is still mentioned in late 4th century, early 5th century. Among the emblems of the legion were the winged horse Pegasus and the Capricornus.

III Augusta was probably present in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, where Augustus and Mark Antony defeated the army of the senators that conspired to murder Julius Caesar. After this victory, III Augusta stayed under the command of Augustus, probably in Sicily, where Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey had started a rebellion.

From 30 BC onwards, III Augusta was stationed in the province of Africa. The legion was involved mainly in construction activities. Although Africa was a traditionally peaceful part of the Empire, between 17 and 24, they were involved in the war against the mutinous Numidian and Mauritanian tribes. In 18, a subunit was destroyed in a guerrilla attack. This disaster was probably due to cowardly behaviour, because afterwards, the entire legion was punished by decimation, that is, the killing of every tenth legionary. This procedure was the most serious action a commander could impose on his soldiers and rarely used. After that, IX Hispana was sent to reinforce Africa and by 24 the rebellion was over.

In the 1st century, Africa was the only province controlled by a senator, the proconsul governor. Thus, it was important for the Emperor that this man, also commander of III Augusta, would be loyal. Sulpicius Galba, emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors occupied the position between 45 and 46.

In the last years of the reign of Nero, Lucius Clodius Macer, proconsul of Africa, revolted and levied another legion, I Macriana Liberatrix to join forces with III Augusta. In the confusing Year of the four emperors (69), both legions supported first Galba, then Vitellius and finally Vespasian, although they took no part in the battles in Italy.

In 75, Vespasian moved the camp of III Augusta from Ammaedara, near Theveste, to Lambaesis. In the reign of Hadrian (117-138), the legion was stationed at Lambaesis in Numidia. The legion was to stay there for the next two centuries, guarding the province from the Berber tribes. Men from III Augusta were occasionally used in several campaigns against Parthia. It is also know that legionaries from this African legion were present in the Marcomannic campaign of Marcus Aurelius against the Hungarians.

In 193, Emperor Septimius Severus, an African man, awarded the legion with the cognomen 'Pia Vindex' (Faithful Avenger), for their action in the civil war that followed the murder of Emperor Pertinax.

The 3rd century was a time of crisis for III Augusta. First, it suffered heavy losses in a war against a desert tribe, having to receive reinforcements from the recently disbanded III Gallica. In 238, the Year of the Six Emperors, the legion suppressed the revolt of Gordian I and Gordian II, but was disbanded by their successor Gordian III. In 252, Valerian reconstituted III Augusta with troops coming from Raetia and Noricum, and gave it cognomen Iterum Pia Iterum Vindex (Again faithful, again avenger). The purpose of this reconstitution was to wage a war against a federation of Berber tribes that threatened the empire. This war was over in 260, but between 289-297, the situation was once more out of hand and Emperor Maximian went to Africa to command the Numidian legions personally.

III Augusta was in Africa until late 4th century, early 5th century. According to Notitia Dignitatum, the Tertio Augustani, a comitatensis unit, was under the command of the Comes Africae, possibly within the army of the Dux et praeses provinciae Mauritaniae et Caesariensis. It is not known what happened to III Augusta after this.


Equipment:

Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Gallic Type A - frequently tinned iron

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Original:





Replica:

Screenshots:

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Legio III Gallica:



History:

Legio III Gallica

Legio III Gallica was levied by Julius Caesar around 49 BC, for his civil war against the conservative republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from the Gallic Roman provinces. The legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th century. The legion's symbol was a bull.

The legion took part in all Julius Caesar's campaigns against his enemies, including the battles of Pharsalus and Munda. Following Caesar's death, III Gallica was integrated into the army of Mark Antony, a member of the second triumvirate, for his campaigns against the Parthians. They were included in the army levied by Fulvia and Lucius Antonius (Antony's wife and brother) to oppose Octavian, but ended by surrendering in Perugia, in the winter of 41 BC. After the battle of Actium and Antony's suicide, III Gallica was sent again to the East, where they garrisoned the province of Syria.

III Gallica was used in Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo's campaign against the Parthians over the control of Armenia (AD 63). Corbulo's successes triggered emperor Nero's paranoia of persecution and eventually the general was forced to commit suicide. After this, III Gallica is transferred to Moesia province, in the Danube border. In the year of the four emperors 69, the legion, and the rest of the Danubian army, aligned first with Otho, then with Vespasian. They were instrumental in the final defeat of Vitellius in the second Battle of Bedriacum and in the accession of the Flavians to the throne of Rome. This legion during its service in Syria had developed the custom of saluting the rising sun, and when dawn broke at Bedriacum they turned east to do so. The Vitellian forces thought that they were saluting reinforcements from the east and lost heart. In these years, one of the military tribunes of III is Pliny the Younger.

After this civil war, the legion was again sent to Syria, where they fought against the Judeans in the 2nd century. They also took part in Lucius Verus' (161-166) and Septimius Severus' (197-198) campaigns against the Parthian empire, none with noteworthy success.

III Gallica played a central role in the early reign of Elagabalus. In 218, during Macrinus reign, Julia Maesa went to Raphana, Syria, where the legion was based under the command of P. Valerius Comazon Eutychianus. She largely donated to the legion, which, in turn, proclaimed emperor Julia Maesa's grandson, the fourteen years old Elagabalus, on the dawn of 16 May. On June 8, 218 near Antioch, Gannys, Elagabalus' tutor, defeated Macrinus and his son, with the help of the III Gallica and the other legions of the East. Valerius Comazon entered in Elagabalus court, becoming prefect of the Praetorian Guard and consul in 220.

In 219, the legion, exhausted by Elagabalus excesses, supported its commander, Senator Verus, who proclaimed himself emperor. Elagabalus had Verus executed, and dispersed the legion. The legionaries were transferred mainly to III Augusta, stationed in the Africa provinces. However, the following emperor, Alexander Severus, reconstituted the legion and redeployed them back in Syria. III Gallica records then become obscure. Little is known about the legion's whereabouts, but, in 323, they were still in Syria. One noteworthy member of III Gallica was centurion Lucius Artorius Castus.


Equipment:

Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Gallic Type A - frequently tinned iron

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Original:





Replica:

Screenshots:

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Legio V Alaudae:





History:
Legio V Alavdae

Legio V Alaudae ('The Larks') sometimes known as Gallica, was levied by Julius Caesar in 52 BC from native Gauls in Gallia Transalpina. Their emblem was an elephant, and their cognomen Alaudae (Suetonius tells us) came from the Gallic word for a lark (the French word 'Alouette' is a direct descendant of 'Alauda'). The name has often been taken to have been derived from the fact that the helmet crest worn by these men resembled the head plumage of the crested lark (Galerida cristata), based on a passage in Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis where, describing various types of crests in bird plumage, he refers to the naming of the legion after this particular bird.

Examination of Pliny’s text reveals, however, that this description is normally taken out of context, for he actually says that the
alauda in question has ‘horns’ (cornicula) like those of a pheasant – in other words, small tufts on either side of the bird's head. The crested lark, on the other hand, has only a central erect crest and so cannot be identified with the alauda. It seems likely that the bird intended is in fact most likely to be the male shore (or horned) lark (Eremophila alpestris; see below), a species of lark that possesses these characteristic tufts on the head. Whilst no weight should be placed upon it, the present-day distribution of these species is interesting: the crested lark is now wide-spread in Europe, the Near East and North Africa, but the shore lark winters in a small area around the northern coasts of Europe, is a summer visitor in northern Scandinavia, and is resident in the Balkans and the Near East. Even if the relative distributions were only approximately similar in Caesar's time, then we might reasonably expect the crested lark to be familiar to the Romans from Italy, and thus not particularly ‘Gallic’ in its associations. However, the rarer shore lark might only have been encountered by Caesar’s men in Gaul for the first time; characteristically a lark by its song, but very different in appearance from their native crested lark.

By 52 B.C., Caesar had been to Britain and had campaigned in northern Gaul and may, therefore, have had the opportunity to see this bird. This point would only be of passing interest, if it were not for the fact that it has something to tell us about the use of helmet-crests in the Roman army. The helmet-crest was an important element of Roman military attire, signifying status and also playing a psychological role. There were a variety of ways of attaching crests or plumes to helmets in the army of the late Republic and early Imperial period. One method was to have a central mounting point at the top of the bowl of the helmet, often with fixing rings at the front and back to secure a crest box (see below). Crest boxes could be attached to crest-knobs which were actually part of the helmet (see below) or to forked crest-holders. Many helmets also display so-called plume-tubes, designed to hold side plumes. Such side plumes can be seen being worn, together with a central crest, on the tombstones of C. Castricius (of legio II Adiutrix) from Aquincum and Flavinus the signifer (see below) of the ala Petriana (now in Hexham Abbey).

Robinson has pointed out that side feathers were fashionable in Italy as early as the 4th century B.C., but they are not normally found on Montefortino helmets and may not have been widely used by the late Republican army. In a famous passage, Caesar talks of his men not having enough time to affix their insignia before battle, and this has sometimes been taken to mean crests. A reasonable suggestion might be that legio V earned its cognomen from the fact that its men wore only side-plumes, thus resembling the shore lark, which we have now identified with Suetonius and the Elder Pliny’s alauda.

V Gallica was the first Roman legion composed of provincial soldiers, as opposed to Roman citizens. Caesar paid the soldiers with his own resources, but the legion was later recognized by the Roman Senate. V Alaudae fought in the Gallic wars until 49 BC, as one of the most brave legions of Caesar, then they were moved to Spain. They served with Mark Antony between 41 and 31 BC and probably fought in Actium. After Antony committed suicide, they were merged into Augustus' army in 30 BC. Their emblem depicted an elephant and was awarded in 46 BC for bravery against a charge of elephants in the Battle of Thapsus.

The end of Legio V Alaudae is not clear, but some sources suggest that they were destroyed in the Batavian rebellion in the year 70.

Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Montefortino Type E helmet

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Legio VI Ferrata:




History:

Legio VI Ferrata Fidelis Constans

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions

Legio VI Ferrata (Ironclad) was probably levied by Julius Caesar in 52 BC in Gallia Cisalpina, and it existed at least until middle-3rd century, under Emperor Philip the Arab. VI Ferrata briefly served in Africa under the emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161), where it built a road. Later, when a new war broke out between Rome and Parthia, the emperor Lucius Verus employed the Sixth in Mesopotamia (162-165) and it was probably involved in the capture of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian empire.

During the civil war of 193 after the assassination of the emperor Publius Helvius Pertinax, the sixth legion sided with Lucius Septimius Severus and took up arms against Pescennius Niger, who was very close by. This brave act was rewarded with the title Fidelis Constans, 'loyal and constant'. What happened exactly is not known, but it is likely that behind the conflict between Jews and Samarians in 195 is in fact a civil war. The surname itself suggests that the legion withstood a siege under difficult circumstances, and perhaps its opponent was X Fretensis, but we can not be certain about this interpretation of the events.

The legion was still in Palestine in 215. It is possible that Severus Alexander (222-235) transferred it from Galilee to Phoenicia; however this may be, it is certain that the Sixth ironclad legion was still in existence during the reign of Philippus Arabs (244-249), who minted coins with the name of this unit. Its later history is not known but it seems likely that it disappeared during Valerian's defeat against the Sassanid Persians (260). Captive Roman soldiers were ordered to build a bridge at modern Shushtar and the city of Bishapur.

The emblem of this legion was the wolf-with-twins.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Montefortino Type E helmet

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Screenshots:

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Legio VII CPF:



History:

Legio VII Clavdia Pia VII Fidelis VII Paterna

Legio VII Claudia Pia Fidelis (Faithful and Loyal Claudian legion) dates back to the four legions used by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars in 58 BC, and it existed at least until the end of the 4th century, guarding middle Danube. The emblem of this legion, as well as of all Caesar's legions, was the bull, together with the lion. The Seventh was among the oldest units in the Imperial Roman army. They were with Julius Caesar when he invaded Gaul in 58 BC. The Roman commander mentions the Seventh in his account of the battle against the Nervians (57), and it seems that it was employed during the expedition through western Gaul led by Caesar's deputy Crassus. In 56, the Seventh was present during the Venetic campaign, and it later took part in the two expeditions to Britain (55 and 54). During the crisis caused by Vercingetorix, it fought in the neighbourhood of Paris (52); it must have been active at Alesia and it was certainly involved in the mopping-up operations among the Bellovaci (51).

It was in Dalmatia when in 42 the governor of this province, Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus, revolted against Claudius, who had recently come to power. The soldiers of the seventh and eleventh legions, however, quickly put an end to the rebellion. The Seventh, which had been called Paterna (which means, 'the old ones', received the honorary title Claudia Pia Fidelis, "the seventh Claudian legion, loyal and faithful". The same title was given to the Eleventh.

During the reign of Trajan, the war against the Dacians was renewed (101) and the seventh legion was one of the most important units. Its base Viminacium was used to build up the Roman army that was to invade Dacia in the second campaign season (102). In the neighbourhood, at Drobeta, the Romans erected a famous bridge across the Danube, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus. It is very likely that soldiers of the seventh legion were employed to do the actual building. Victory was finally achieved in 106.

In the third century, the Roman empire was threatened from several sides. The territories north of the Danube had to be evacuated. Several defeats are recorded, and the seventh legion must have suffered. On the other hand, it must have been among the troops that defeated the Visigoths in 269.

During the conflict between the emperor Gallienus and his rival Postumus, the seventh legion supported the first-mentioned, for which it was rewarded with surnames like Pia VI Fidelis VI ('six times faithful and loyal') and Pia VII Fidelis VII. It is not know when it received the ones in between.

The Seventh was still guarding the Middle Danube at the end of the fourth century.

Like almost all Caesarian legions, the emblem of this legion was a bull. The lion is also attested.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Montefortino Type E helmet

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Screenshots:

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Legio VIII Augusta:




History:

Legio VIII Avgvsta

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions

Legio VIII Augusta was inherited by Julius Caesar and continued in service to Rome for at least 400 years thereafter.

It was levied by Caesar in 59 BC, or possibly earlier. Between 58 and 49 BC they fought in the Gallic wars under Caesar. In 49, the Eighth legion accompanied Caesar across the Rubicon into Italy, at the very beginning of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and at the Battle of Pharsalus. The legion was also present in Egypt, when Caesar captured Egypt for Cleopatra. In 46 BC the legion took part in the Battle of Thapsus (modern Tunisia), shortly before their disbandment.

In 44 BC, Augustus reconstituted the legion which had helped him gain control of the Empire. This loyalty gave the legion the cognomen Augusta. VIII Augusta took part in the Roman invasion of Britain.

In 69 AD, the Year of the Four Emperors, following the suicide of Nero, the legion took the part of Vitellius, one of the defeated emperors. After that they were moved to the Rhine frontier, where they stayed for almost the entire remainder of their history. The legion also fought in Parthia with Septimius Severus (who ruled from 193 until 211) and with his successors.

Records indicate that they were still active during the first years of the 4th century on the Rhine frontier. This means that the history of the legion covers more than 400 years of almost continuous service. In 371 it was stationed in Argetoratum (Strasbourg), in Germania Superior, according to an inscription. Later, the Roman general Stilicho, was compelled to move the German legions back to Italy to defend it against the Visigoth's invasion. According to Notitia Dignitatum, around 420 an Octaviani unit was under the Magister Peditum of Italia; it is possible that this unit was the old VIII Augusta, which was originally a Comitatensis unit that had been promoted to Palatina status.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Montefortino Type E helmet

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Screenshots:

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Legio IX Hispana:




History:

Legio IX Hispana


Legio IX Hispana was probably levied by Julius Caesar before 58 BC, for his Gallic wars. The legion disappeared during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century, probably destroyed. The legion's symbol is unknown, likely a bull, as other legions created by Caesar.

The Ninth Legion was present during the whole campaign of the Gallic wars. Later, they remained faithful to Caesar in the civil war against the conservative faction of the Senate led by Pompey. They fought in the battles of Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus (48 BC) and in the African campaign of 46 BC. After his final victory, Caesar disbanded the legion and settled the veterans in the area of Picenum.

Following Caesar's assassination, Octavian recalled the veterans of the Ninth to fight against the rebellion of Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. After his defeat, they were sent to the province of Macedonia. The Ninth remained with Octavian in his war of 31 BC against Mark Antony and fought by his side in the battle of Actium. With Octavian as sole ruler of the Roman world, the legion was sent to Hispania to take part in the large scale campaign against the Cantabrians (25-13 BC). Their surname Hispana likely dates from this event and was probably earned for distinction in fighting. After this, the legion was probably a member of the Imperial army in the Rhine border that was campaigning against the Germanic tribes. Following the abandonment of the Eastern Rhine area (after the disaster of the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9), the Ninth was relocated in Pannonia. In 43 they participated in the Roman invasion of Britain led by Emperor Claudius and General Aulus Plautius. Under the command of Caesius Nasica they put down the first revolt of Venutius between 52 and 57. The Ninth suffered important losses under Quintus Petillius Cerialis in the rebellion of Boudica (61) and was later reinforced with legionaries from the Germanic provinces. Their last record in Britain dates from the early 2nd century, when the legion built a fortress near York. Then, apparently they were moved to Germania Inferior.

From about 120 on, the legion disappears from the records. It was destroyed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, either during the Bar Kokhba's revolt (130s) or in the Danube revolts (160s).

For a time it was believed, at least by some British historians, that the legion disappeared during its stay in Britain, presumably in conflict with the peoples of present-day Scotland. However this view is not now accepted, as there are records of it being based on the continent after its time in Britain.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Coolus Type C

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Legio X Gemina Pia:




History:

Legio X Gemina

Legio X Gemina, the twin legion, was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull. Early on in its history, the legion was called X Equestris (mounted), because Caesar once used the legionaries as cavalry.

In the Gallic wars, X Equestris played an important role in Caesar's military success and for this reason is sometimes said to be his favorite. In Caesar's campaigns they were present at the battle against the Nervians, the invasions of Britain, and the siege of Gergovia. They remained faithful to Caesar in the civil war against Pompey, being present in the battles of Pharsalus (49 BC) and Munda (45 BC). In 45 BC Caesar disbanded the legion, giving the veterans farmlands near Narbonne.

The legion was reconstituted in 42 BC and fought for Augustus (then Octavian) against the murderers of Caesar. After this, they followed Mark Antony in his campaign against Parthia and were defeated with him at Actium. Augustus then took control of the legion and settled the veterans in Patras. The legion rebelled and lost its cognomen Equestris as punishment. Reinforcements were added from other legions, and the Tenth was renamed Gemina.

The newly formed X Gemina was relocated to Hispania Tarraconensis, where Augustus was preparing a campaign against the Cantabrians. They stayed in Hispania for many years and their veterans were among the first inhabitants of modern Zaragoza.

Later, as part of the army of Germania Inferior, X Gemina fought against the rebellion of the governor, L. Antonius Saturninus, against Emperor Domitian. For this reason, the Tenth received the title Pia Fidelis Domitiana, "faithful and loyal to Domitian", with the reference to the Emperor dropped at his death. In 103, it was moved to Aquincum and later to Vindobona (modern Vienna), in Pannonia Superior, which would be the legion's camp until the 5th century.

During the 3rd century, the legion fought for several emperors, who awarded the legion with titles showing the fidelity of the legion and the favour gained by the Emperor himself. For its support of Emperor Gallienus against Postumus, the Gemina was awarded the title Pia VI Fidelis VI, "six times faithful, six times loyal".

At the time in which Notitia Dignitatum was written (4th century), a 'first detachment' of Decima Gemina was under the command of the Magister Militum per Orientem, and was a comitatensis unit. Another detachment was still in Vindobona, under the command of the Dux Pannoniae primae et Norici ripensis.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Coolus Type C

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Screenshots:

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Legio XI Claudia Pia Fidelis:




History:

Legio XI Claudia Pia Fidelis

Legio XI Claudia Pia Fidelis (faithful and loyal Claudian legion) dates back to the two legions (the other was the XIIth) recruited by Julius Caesar to invade Gallia in 58 BC, and it existed at least until early 5th century, guarding lower Danube in Durostorum (modern Silistra, Bulgaria).

The emblem of this legion is not recorded; it could have been, as were all Caesar's legions, the bull, possibly the she-wolf lactating the twins.

The XIth and XIIth legions were levied by Caesar for his Helvetii campaign in 58 BC. The legion fought in the Battle against the Nervians, and probably fought at the Siege of Alesia too. During the civil war, the Eleventh legion fought for Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrhachium and at Pharsalus. The legion was disbanded in 45 BC, and its veterans were offered lands at Bojano, which received the name of Bovianum Undecumanorum, "Bovianum of the members of the eleventh". Following Augustus' rise to power the XIth was reconstituted in 42 BC by him (at the time known as Octavian), to fight in the civil war against the assassins of Caesar. The XIth fought in the Battle of Philippi, and then was sent back to Italy to quell a revolt at Perugia. It was probably involved with the fight against Sextus Pompeius, who had seized Sicilia.

In 32 BC, the XIth fought for Octavian against Mark Antony, in the civil war which ended with the Battle of Actium and Octavian's victory. The Eleventh was sent to the Balkans, but after a major defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (AD 9), Augustus redistributed the legions on the Northern frontier, sending the XIth to Burnum, Dalmatia (modern Kistanje), together with the VIIth.

In 42, the governor of Dalmatia, Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus, revolted against Emperor Claudius. The Eleventh and the Seventh sided with the Emperor, and put down Scribonianus' rebellion. Claudius awarded each of the two loyal legions with the title Claudia Pia Fidelis. In the Year of the Four Emperors (69), the XI, the VII (which had moved from Burnum in 58) and XIV Gemina sided with Otho. A subunit of the Eleventh moved to participate in the Battle of Cremona between Otho and his opponent Vitellius, but arrived late on the battlefield, and was sent back to Dalmatia by the victorious Vitellius. When the commander of the Eastern army, Vespasian, claimed the purple, the XIth sided with him, fighting in the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which marked the beginning of the rule of Emperor Vespasian. The following year, 70, Claudia was led by Cerialis to quell the Batavian rebellion; after the rebellion was put down, the Claudia was moved to Vindonissa, in the province of Germania Superior, to replace XXI Rapax, while IV Flavia Felix moved to Burnum.

Towards the end of the 1st century, Claudia fought on the eastern bank of the Rhine (73/74); it also took part in Domitian's campaign against the Chatti in 83.

During the clash between Emperor Gallienus and the Emperor of the Gallic Empire Postumus, XI Claudia fought for the former, receiving the titles Pia V Fidelis V and Pia VI Fidelis VI ("Five/Six times faithful and loyal"). While still camped in Durostorum, some vexillationes of the Eleventh fought around the Empire: in 295, a mobile subunit is in Egypt, while in 298 another is in Mauretania.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Italic Type C helmet

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Screenshots:

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Legio XIII Gemina:




History:

Legio XIII Gemina

Legio XIII, the 13th Legion (after 31 BC known as Legio XIII Gemina, the twin legion), is one of the more historically noteworthy Roman legions, as it was one of Julius Caesar's armies used in Gaul, and also for his civil war. It was the legion he famously crossed the Rubicon with on January 10, 49 BC. After Caesar's victory, the legion was retired and its veterans settled, in 45 BC. In 41 BC Legio XIII was reactivated by Augustus as a standing army. The Antonine Itinerary (collected during the early Principate) has Legio XIII stationed in Babylon in Egypt, a strategic fortress on the Nile at the traditional border between Lower Egypt and Middle Egypt. After 134 years as an active legion, XIII Gemina was made a garrison army in the province of Dacia (modern Romania) by Domitian, in 89, although vexillationes from the legion were still used in active campaigns. The legion was relocated when the Dacia province was evacuated, and restationed in Dacia by Aureliana. It is unknown when the legion was finally disbanded, but it is mentioned in Roman records as late as the early 5th century; The Notitia Dignitatum (c.400) mentions a "13th twin legion", although it has it stationed in Babylon. In the year of the four emperors (69), XIII Gemina supported first Otho and then Vitellius, two of the defeated emperors, fighting in the two Battles of Bedriacum. In 89 Domitian transferred the legion to Dacia (in Apulum, modern Alba Iulia, Romania) to garrison the province from their camp in Vienna. They remained in this camp until the 5th century, according to Notitia Dignitatum, although some vexillationes participated in several foreign campaigns. The symbol of the legion was the lion. May have become an Eastern Empire Legion.

Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Italic Type C helmet

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Screenshots:

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[tone]

Legio I Minerva Pia Fidelis:




History:

Legio I Minervia

Legio I Minervia was levied by emperor Domitian in 82, for the campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Chatti. Its cognomen is related to the goddess Minerva, the legion's protector. There are still records of the I Minervia in the Rhine border in the middle of the 4th century. The legion's emblem is an image of goddess Minerva.

Legio I Minervia's camp was in the city of Bonna (modern Bonn), in the province of Germania Inferior. In 89, they suppressed a revolt of the governor of Germania Superior. Due to this, Domitian gave them the cognomen Pia Fidelis Domitiana (loyal and faithful to Domitian) to acknowledge their support.

Between 101 and 106, the legion fought in the Dacian Wars of emperor Trajan, commanded by Hadrian, the future emperor. The legion's emblem Minerva figure appears on the column of Trajan in Rome, along with symbols of other legions. After this war, I Minervia returned to its home city of Bonna. Together with XXX Ulpia Victrix, stationed close by in Castra Vetera II (modern Xanten), they worked in numerous military and building activities, even extracting stone from quarries.

During the civil wars of the late 2nd and 3rd century, I Minervia supported Septimius Severus, then Elagabalus, then Alexander Severus of the Gallic Empire, that existed between 260 and 274.

Around 353, Bonna was destroyed by the Franks, and I Minervia disappears from history. However, there is no reference to its destruction.


Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type G:

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Screenshots:

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Legio I Adiutrix:




History:

Legio I Adiutrix

Legio I Adiutrix ("assistant"), was a Roman legion formed in 68, possibly by Galba under orders of Nero. The last record mentioning the Adiutrix is in 444, when it was stationed at Brigetio, in the Roman province of Pannonia. The emblem of the legion was a capricorn, used along with the winged horse Pegasus.

The legion probably originated from the I Classis, a legion levied by Nero among the mariners of the Classis Misenensis, but was later completed by Galba. The legion was stationed near Rome. In the confusing Year of the four emperors, the legion fought in Otho's army in the Battle of Bedriacum, where this emperor was defeated by Vitellius. The victorious Vitellius ordered the legion transferred to Spain, but by the year 70 it was fighting in the Batavian rebellion.

The city of Moguntiacum (Mainz) is the legion's first known base camp, shared with Legio XIV Gemina, where they attended mainly building activities. In 83, they fought the Germanic wars against the Chatti, a German tribe living across the Rhine, under the command of Emperor Domitian. After that they were transferred to the Danubian army stationed in the Roman province of Pannonia, to fight the Dacians.

Following the murder of Domitian in 96, the Adiutrix, along with the Danubian army, played an important role in Roman politics, forcing Nerva to adopt Trajan as his successor. When Trajan became emperor, he gave the legion the cognomen Pia Fidelis ("loyal and faithful") to acknowledge their support. Between 101 and 106, under the new emperor's command, I Adiutrix, along with IV Flavia Felix and XIII Gemina, conquered Dacia and occupied the newly formed province. Trajan also used his Pia Fidelis in the campaign against Parthia (115-117), but they were sent back to Pannonia by his successor emperor Hadrian, with base in Brigetio.

During the next decades, I Adiutrix remained in the Danube frontier. Under Marcus Aurelius, I Adiutrix fought the war against Marcomanni. Between 171 and 175, the commander was Pertinax, emperor for a brief period in 193. When Septimius Severus became emperor, I Adiutrix was among his supporters, following him in the march for Rome.

In the next decades, the main base was again Pannonia, but they played a part in several Parthian wars, namely the campaigns of 195 and 197-198 of Septimius Severus, 215-217 led by Caracalla and 244 by Gordian III.

The legion received the cognomen Pia Fidelis Bis ("twice loyal and faithful") and Constans ("reliable"), sometime in the 3rd century.


Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type G:

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Screenshots:

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Legio III Cyrenaica:




History:

Legio III Cyrenaica

Legio III Cyrenaica, (from Cyrenaica, a Roman province), was probably levied by Mark Antony around 36 BC when he was governor of Cyrenaica.

There are still records of the legion in Syria in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol is unknown.

The first historical appearance of the legion is during the campaign of Emperor Caesar Augustus to conquer Egypt in 30 BC. III Cyrenaica would remain in Egypt and, in AD 35 was in Alexandria, sharing camp with XXII Deiotariana. The main task of both legions was keep the province safe and to maintain peace and order between the different ethnic and religious groups present in Alexandria.

In the internal turmoil of the Roman Empire, III Cyrenaica tended to follow defeated candidates for the throne like Avidius Cassius (vs. Marcus Aurelius in 175) and Pescennius Niger (vs. Septimius Severus in 192).

The legion, or subunits of it, probably participated in the following campaigns:

25 BC against Arabia Felix, modern Yemen, and 23 BC against Nubia

63 AD against the Parthian Empire for the control over Armenia

66-70 and 132-136 retaliations for Jewish rebellions

162-166 against the Parthian Empire, commanded by Lucius Verus

215-217 against the Parthian Empire, commanded by Caracalla

After the rebellion of Zenobia in 267-272, III Cyrenaica was transferred to an unclear location, although the legion was in Bostra (Syria) at the beginning of the 5th century. It is likely this legion was absorbed into the Eastern Empire.

Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Gallic Type F

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Screenshots:

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Legio IIII Scythica:




History:

Legio IIII Scythica


Legio IIII Scythica was levied by Mark Antony around 42 BC, for his campaign against the Parthian Empire, hence her other cognomen, Parthica. The legion was still active in Syria in the early 5th century. The legion's symbol was a capricorn.

In its first years, the whereabouts of IIII Scythica are uncertain, although it is probable that they took part on Antony's campaign against the Parthians. The name suggests that they fought against the Scythians. After the battle of Actium and Antony's suicide, Octavian transferred IIII Scythica to the Danube province of Moesia. The legion is reported to take part in civilian tasks, such as the building and keeping of roads. In his youth, future emperor Vespasian served in this legion.

Campaigns in the East:

In the East, the king Vologeses I had invaded Armenia (58), a client kingdom of Rome. Nero ordered Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, the new legatus of Cappadocia, to manage the matter, and Corbulo brought the IIII Scythica from Moesia, and with III Gallica and VI Ferrata defeated the Parthians, restoring Tigranes on Armenia's throne. In 62, IIII Scythica and XII Fulminata, commanded by the new legatus of Cappadocia, Lucius Caesennius Paetus, were defeated by the Parthians at the battle of Rhandeia and forced to surrender. The legions were covered with shame and removed from the war theatre to Zeugma. This city would be the base camp of IV Scythica for the next century.

In the Year of the Four Emperors (69), the legion, like the rest of the Eastern army, sided with Vespasian from day one. Despite the demonstrated loyalty, the IIII Scythica was not involved in actual fighting because they were not considered a high quality legion. This has to do with another defeat suffered years earlier in the Jewish rebellion. In the 2nd century they participated in the control of another Jewish rebellion, this time with more success. IIII Scythica participated in all campaigns of the 2nd century against the Parthian Empire. Between 181 and 183, the commander of the Eastern legions was Septimius Severus, who became emperor relying on his legion's power. The legion disappears from all sources after 219, when their commander, Gellius Maximus, rebelled against Elagabalus and proclaimed himself emperor, only to be defeated by Elagabalus. However, in the early 5th century, IIII Scythica was reported still in Syria.

Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type G:

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Screenshots:

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Legio IIII Flavia Felix:




History:

Legio IIII Flavia Felix

Legio IIII Flavia Felix (serene Flavian legion), was levied by Vespasian in 70, from the ashes of the Legio IIII Macedonica. The legion was active in Moesia Superior well into the first half of the 4th century. The legion symbol was a lion.

During the Batavian rebellion, the IIII Macedonica fought for Vespasian, but the emperor distrusted his men, probably because they had supported Vitellius two years before. Therefore the IIII Macedonica was disbanded, and a new Fourth legion, called Flavian Felix was levied by the emperor, who gave the legio his nomen, Flavia. Since the symbol of the legion is a lion, it was probably levied in July/August 70.

IIII Flavia Felix was camped in Burnum, Dalmatia (modern Kistanje), where it replaced XI Claudia. After the Dacian invasion of 86, Domitian moved the legion to Moesia Superior, in Singidunum, although there is some evidence of the presence of this legion, of one of its vexillationes in Viminacium, base of VII Claudia. In 88 the Fourth participated in the retaliation invasion of Dacia; it also participated in the Dacian Wars of Trajan, ending with the victory at the Battle of Tapae. It fought again across the Danube in 165, under emperor Lucius Verus in his campaign against the Parthian Empire.

After the death of Pertinax, the IIII Flavia Felix supported Septimius Severus against usurpers Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus.

Even if the legion fought in one of the several wars against the Sassanids, it stayed in Moesia Superior until the first half of the 4th century.


Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type D

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Screenshots:

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Legio V Macedonica:




History:

Legio V Macedonica

Legio V was one of the original twenty-eight legions raised by Octavian. There are two fifth legions recorded: the V Gallica and the V Urbana. It is possible that these both were early names for the V Macedonica. The legion probably participated in the Battle of Actium (31 BC). It later moved to Macedonia, where it stayed from 30 BC to AD 6, gaining its cognomen, before moving to Oescus (Moesia).

The Fifth was probably still in the East when the Great Jewish Revolt in Iudaea Province began in 66. Nero gave V Macedonica, the X Fretensis and the XV Apollinaris to Titus Flavius Vespasianus to counter the revolt. In 67, in Galilee, the city of Sepphoris surrendered peacefully to the Roman army, and later the V Macedonica conquered Mount Gerizim, the chief sanctuary of the Samaritans.

At the beginning of the reign of Commodus, the V Macedonica and the XIII Gemina defeated once again the Sarmatians, under the later usurpers Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. The Fifth later supported Septimius Severus, in his fight for the purple. Then in 185 or 187, the legion was awarded of the title Pia Constans ("Faithful and reliable") or Pia Fidelis ("Faithful and loyal"), after defeating a mercenary army in Dacia.

While staying in Potaissa for most of the 3rd century, V Macedonica fought several times, earning honours. Valerian gave the Fifth the name III Pia III Fidelis; his son, Gallienus gave the legion the title VII Pia VII Fidelis, with the 4th, 5th and 6th titles awarded probably when the legion was used as a mobile cavalry unit against usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus (260, Moesia). A vexillatio fought against Victorinus (Gaul, 269-271). The legion returned to Oescus in 274, after Aurelian had retired from Dacia. It guarded the province in later centuries, becoming a Comitatensis unit under the Magister Militum per Orientis. It became part of the Byzantine army in 475. The cavalry unit created by Gallienus was definitively detached by Diocletian, and become part of his Comitatus. This unit was sent to Mesopotamia, where it successfully fought against the Sassanid Empire in 296, and then to Memphis, where it had to stay until its entering into the Eastern Empire army (c475). By far one of the most long lasting cohesive army units ever known.


Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Weighted Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Imperial Gallic Type C:

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Screenshots:

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Legio VI Victrix Pia Fidelis:




History:

Legio VI Victrix Pia Fidelis Constans Hispaniensis Britannica

The sixth legion was founded by Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) in 41 BC, as a copy of the Caesarian sixth legion, which was in the army of his rival Marc Antony. The new legion saw its first action during the siege of Perugia in the same year. In 31, the Sixth was present during the battle of Actium against Marc Antony. After 30, it was stationed in Hispania Tarraconensis, where it took part in Augustus' campaigns against the Cantabrians, which lasted from 25-13 BC. This was a very large war: among the other troops involved were I Germanica, II Augusta, IV Macedonica, V Alaudae, IX Hispana, X Gemina (which seems to have shared its base, perhaps near Braga, with our unit), XX Valeria Victrix, and another legion, perhaps VIII Augusta.

VI Victrix was to stay in Hispania for almost a century and received the surname Hispaniensis. Soldiers of this unit and X Gemina were among the first settlers of Zaragoza.

When in 89 the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, revolted against the emperor Domitian, the army of Germania Inferior (I Minervia, VI Victrix, X Gemina, XXII Primigenia) hurried to the south, to Mainz, and defeated the rebel. Every legion was awarded the title Pia Fidelis Domitiana ('faithful and loyal to Domitian'). When this emperor was killed in 96, the last element of this honorific title was dropped.

In 121, the emperor Hadrian visited Germania Inferior, where he ordered the construction of the Lower Rhine limes, which is better known as Hadrian's wall. The legion's new base was York, close to Hadrian's wall. In the years between 155 and 158, a widespread revolt occurred in northern Britain, requiring heavy fighting by the British legions. They suffered heavily, and reinforcements had to be brought in from the two Germanic provinces. At first, the Romans remained master of the area between Hadrian's wall and the Antonine wall, but at the beginning of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, it was abandoned. Hadrian's wall once again marked the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. During this time, it received the honorific title Britannica. From now on, the full name of the legion was VI Victrix Pia Fidelis Britannica.

During this century, VI Victrix remained at York, and shared the fate of Britain. When this province was part of the Gallic Empire, it supported the Gallic emperors (260-274); when Britain became independent, it supported usurpers like Carausius and Allectus (286-297). After 297, the province was again incorporated into the Roman empire, and the soldiers served crown-prince (later emperor) Constantius I Chlorus. When he died in 306 in York, soldiers of the Sixth proclaimed his son emperor: Constantine the Great (306-337). For this reason VI Victrix was indeed a notable Legion!!

In the last third of the fourth century, Roman rule in Britain was increasingly threatened, and order had to be restored several times. VI Victrix must have suffered defeats. Yet, the legion still existed in the late fourth century. It may have been withdrawn to the continent in 402 by Stilicho, the supreme commander of the Roman forces in western Europe during the reign of Honorius.

Its legionary symbol probably was a bull.


Equipment:

Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Gallic Type A - frequently tinned iron

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Original:





Replica:

Screenshots:

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Legio X Fretensis:




History:
Legio X Fretensis


One of the original 28 Augustan Legions (Legion of the sea straights)

Founded in 41 BC by Octavian to be used in Sicily against Sextus Pompey.

Legio X Fretensis (Of the sea straits) was levied by Augustus in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of civil war that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic. X Fretensis is recorded to exist at least until 410AD. X Fretensis symbols were the bull, the holy animal of the goddess Venus (mythical ancestor of the gens Julia), a ship (probably a reference to the battles of Naulochus and-or Actium), the god Neptune, and a boar. The symbol of Taurus may also mean that it was organized between 20 April and 20 May.

X Fretensis was centrally involved in the first Jewish War (66-73), under the supreme command of Vespasian.

In 66, the X Fretensis and V Macedonica went to Alexandria for an invasion of Ethiopia planned by Nero. However, the two legions were needed in Iudaea to suppress a revolt. After spending the winter in Ptolemais Ace (modern Acre, Israel), X Fretensis and V Macedonica relocated in the coastal city of Caesarea Maritima (67-68). This was due to the large number of legions being mobilized in Ptolemais, under Marcus Ulpius Traianus, future governor of Syria and father of the emperor Trajan. During that same winter, the Caesarea camp of Xth and Vth hosted Vespasian, who was forced the following year, to go to Rome to seize power. Vespasian's son, Titus ended the revolt. When Tarichacae and Gamala were conquered, the X Fretensis moved to Scythopolis (modern Bet She'an), just west of Jordan River. In the summer of 68, X Fretensis destroyed the monastery of Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls are believed to have originated. Its winter camp was at Jericho.

Herodium was one of the fortresses of the Jewish revolt conquered by X Fretensis.

By 70, the rebellion in all of Iudaea had been crushed, except for Jerusalem and a few fortresses, including Masada. In that year X Fretensis, in conjunction with V Macedonica, XII Fulminata, and XV Apollinaris, began the siege of Jerusalem, stronghold of the rebellion. The Xth camped on the Mount of Olives. During the siege, Legio X gained fame in the effective use of their various war machines. It was noted that they were able to hurl stones that weighted a talent (about 25 kg) a distance of two furlongs (400 m) or further. The projectiles of their ballistae caused heavy damage to the ramparts. The siege of Jerusalem lasted five months and the besieged population experienced all the terrible rigors of starvation. Finally, the combined assaults of the legions succeeded in taking the city, which was then subjected to destruction.

During the spring of 71, Titus set sail for Rome. A new military governor was then appointed from Rome, Lucilius Bassus, whose assigned task was to undertake the "mopping-up" operations in Iudaea. Naturally, he used X Fretensis to oppose the few remaining fortresses that still resisted. As part of this, X Fretensis took Herodium, and then crossed the Jordan to capture the fortress of Machaerus on the shore of the Dead Sea. Due to illness, Bassus did not live to complete his mission. Lucius Flavius Silva replaced him, and moved against the last Jewish stronghold, Masada, in the autumn of 72. He used Legio X, auxiliary troops, and thousands of Jewish prisoners. After his orders for surrender were rejected, Silva established several base camps and a wall of circumvolution completely around the fortress. When the Romans finally broke through the walls of this citadel, they discovered that the Jewish defenders had chosen death with a mass suicide.

After the conclusion of the Jewish revolt, Legio X was garrisoned at Jerusalem. Their main camp was positioned on the Western Hill, located in the southern half of the old city, now levelled of all former buildings. At the time, Legio X was the sole legion assigned to maintain the peace in Iudaea, and was directly under the command of the governor of the province, who was also legatus of the legion.

Later, the legion moved to Aila (close to modern Aqaba),probably during Diocletian's reforms, and is recorded as still camping there at the time of the redaction of Notitia Dignitatum, in 410AD.

Probably became an Eastern Empire Legion after 475, and therefore joins V Macedonica as one of the longest lasting military units in history.

Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type G:

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Screenshots:

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Legio XII Fulminata:




History:

Legio XII Fvlminata

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions (The Lightning Legion)

Legio XII Fulminata (wielder of the thunderbolt), also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC. The unit was still guarding the Euphrates River crossing near Melitene at the beginning of the 5th century. The legion's emblem was a thunderbolt (fulmen).

The Twelfth Legion, as it is perhaps better known, fought in the battle against the Nervians, and probably also in the siege of Alesia. The Twelfth fought at the battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), when Caesar defeated Pompey. After Caesar won the civil war, the legion was named Victrix, and enlisted in 43 BC by Lepidus and Mark Anthony. Mark Anthony led the Twelfth, renamed XII Antiqua (of consolidated quality) during his campaign against the Parthian Empire. During the latest part of Augustus' principality, XII Fulminata served in Syria, camping at Raphana.

In 66, after a Zealot revolt had destroyed the Roman garrison in Jerusalem, the XII Fulminata, with vexillationes of IV Scythica and VI Ferrata, was sent to retaliate, but it was sent back by Gaius Cestius Gallus, legatus of Syria, when he saw that the legion was weak. On its way back, XII Fulminata was ambushed and defeated by Eleazar ben Simon at Beit-Horon, and lost its aquila (Eagle). However, XII Fulminata fought well in the last part of the war, and supported its commander T. Flavius Vespasian in his successful bid for the imperial throne. At the end of the war, XII Fulminata and XVI Flavia Firma were sent to guard the Euphrates border, camping at Melitene.

After these episodes, the records of the Fulminata are scarce. The Palmyrene Empire was reconquered by Aurelian; Emperor Diocletian defeated the Sassanids and moved the frontier to Northern Mesopotamia. The Twelfth, which probably took part in these campaigns, is recorded guarding the frontier of the Euphrates in Melitene, at the beginning of the 5th century (Notitia Dignitatum). It may have become an Eastern Empire legion.


Equipment:
Lorica segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Imperial Gallic Type I (Aquincum)

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Screenshots:

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Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix:



History:

Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix Pia VI Fidelis VI

Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix was levied by Octavian after 41 BC. The cognomen Gemina (twin, in Latin) suggests that the legion resulted from fusion of two previous ones, one of them possibly being the XIVth that fought in the Battle of Alesia. Martia Victrix (martial victory) were cognomens added by Nero following the victory over Queen Boudicca. The emblem of the legion was the Capricorn and the Black Eagle.

Stationed in Moguntiacum, Germania Superior, since, 9, XIV Gemina Martia Victrix was one of four legions used by Aulus Plautius and Claudius in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, and took part in the defeat of Queen Boudicca in 60 or 61. In 68 it was stationed in Gallia Narbonensis.

In 89 the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, rebelled against Domitian, with the support of the XIVth and of the XXI Rapax, but the revolt was suppressed.

When the XXIst was lost, in 92, XIV Gemina was sent to Pannonia to replace it, camping in Vindobona. After a war with the Sarmatians and Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-106), the legion was moved to Carnuntum, where it stayed for three centuries. Some subunits of the XIVth fought in the wars against the Mauri, under Antoninus Pius, and the legion participated in the Parthian campaign of Emperor Lucius Verus. During his war against the Marcomanni, Emperor Marcus Aurelius based his headquarters in Carnuntum.

In 193, after the death of Pertinax, the commander of the XIVth, Septimius Severus, was acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions, and above all by his own. The XIV Gemina fought for its emperor in his march to Rome to attack usurper Didius Julianus (193), contributed to the defeat of the usurper Pescennius Niger (194), and probably fought in the Parthian campaign that ended with the sack of the capital of the empire, Ctesiphon (198).

In the turmoil following the defeat of Valerian, XIV Gemina supported usurper Regalianus against Emperor Gallienus (260), then Gallienus against Postumus of the Gallic empire (earning the title VI Pia VI Fidelis ("six times faithful, six times loyal"), and, after Gallienus death, Gallic Emperor Victorinus (269-271).

At the beginning of the 5th century, XIV Gemina still stayed at Carnuntum. It probably dissolved with the collapse of the Danube frontier in the 430s, although the Notitia Dignitatum lists a 'Quartodecimani Comitatensis' unit under the Magister Militum per Thracias; it is possible that this unit was XIV Gemina, and that it moved east to the surviving Empire after the fall of the West.

Equipment:

Lorica hamata
Early Pilum
Fulham gladius - Fulham or Mainz-Fulham: The sword that gave the name to the type was dredged from the Thames near Fulham and must therefore date to a time after the Roman occupation of Britain began. That would have been after the invasion of Aulus Plautius in 43 CE. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered the conjunction point between Mainz and Pompei. Some consider it an evolution or the same as the Mainz type. Blade length 70 cm blade width: 6 cm at the base, 4 cm in the middle, 7 cm in the end.
Imperial Gallic Type A - frequently tinned iron

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Original:





Replica:

Screenshots:

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Legio XV Apollinaris:




History:

Legio XV Apollinaris

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions

Legio XV Apollinaris (Apollinaris means devoted to Apollo) was recruited by Octavian in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals.

The XV Apollinaris is sometimes confused with two other legions named the XVth: An earlier unit which was commanded by Julius Caesar and met its end in North Africa in 49 BC, and a later XVth that was present at the Battle of Philippi on the side of the Second Triumvirate and then sent east. The genuine XV Apollinaris was raised in order to end the occupation of Sicily by Sextus Pompeius, who was threatening Rome's grain supply. After the Battle of Actium, the legion was sent to garrison Illyricum, where it probably remained until 6 BC, though it might have seen action in the Cantabrian Wars. In 6 BC, the Apollinaris legion was part of the huge campaign by Emperor Tiberius against the Marcomanni that was obstructed by a revolt in Pannonia. The XVth saw a good deal of fighting in the suppression of the revolt. By AD 9 the legion was headquartered in Pannonia, in the town of Carnuntum. There the unit stayed until sent to Syria and possibly Armenia by Nero in 61 or 62, these territories newly conquered from the Parthians. After the conclusion of the war with Parthia, the legion was sent to Alexandria but soon found itself engaged in the fierce fighting of the First Jewish Revolt, capturing the towns of Jotapata and Gamla.

Notably, it was the XVth that captured the Jewish general later to become famous as the historian Josephus. During this period the legion was commanded by Titus, who would later become Emperor.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the legion reappears in history: it is still quartered at Satala and Ancyra, and is under the command of the Dux Armeniae. An inscription possibly relating to this legion was found in a cave in eastern Uzbekistan. It probably became an Eastern Empire Legion.

Equipment:
Lorica hamata
Weighted Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Imperial Gallic Type C:

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Screenshots:

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Legio XVI Flavia Firma:



History:

Legio XVI Flavia Firma

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions

Its name means 'Flavian's Firm Legion". The symbol of the sixteenth Flavian legion was the lion. The former legion XVI Gallica, which had been disgraced by its conduct during the Batavian revolt (69-70), was reconstituted by the Emperor Vespasian under the name XVI Flavia Firma and transferred to the eastern provinces. This transfer was some sort of punishment, because the soldiers of XVI Gallica were from Gaul in the west. Yet the men must have been happy that they were not dishonourably discharged. The Sixteenth took part in the emperor Trajan's war against the Parthian empire (114-117), and was redeployed at Samosata by Trajan's successor Hadrian (117-138). It was a quiet period and it comes as no surprise to find only evidence for civil activities, like the building of a tunnel near Seleucia in Syria. The Greek author Lucian, who was born in Samosata, describes the defeat of a Roman army in eastern Cappadocia in 161 at the hands of the Parthians. Perhaps IX Hispana was destroyed there. We know that XVI Flavia Firma was among the troops used by the Emperor Lucius Verus when he retaliated and conquered Mesopotamia (the northern part of modern Iraq).

The Sixteenth must also have taken part in the two campaigns of Lucius Septimius Severus (194 and 197-198), which culminated in the capture of the Parthian capital Ctesiphon and the creation of a province Mesopotamia. Later, XVI Flavia Firma must have joined the eastern campaign of Severus' son Caracalla, who died in 217 in nearby Harran.

One of the consequence of the creation of Mesopotamia was another reorganization of the Upper Euphrates area, which was no longer a threatened frontier zone. After all, two legions, I Parthica and III Parthica, were stationed farther to the east in the area between Euphrates and Tigris. During the reorganization of the old frontier zone, soldiers of the Sixteenth, from now on a strategic reserve, built a bridge across the river Chabinas, the modern Cendere Suya. This bridge is still in use and leads to the splendid mountain sanctuary at Nemrud dagi.

The sixteenth legion was still in this area during the reign of Severus Alexander and must have taken part in his campaign against the new Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids had invaded the Roman empire in 230 and had installed an Emperor in Emessa, but Severus Alexander was able to restore order and invade Mesopotamia. In 244, the Romans again invaded Iraq, but their Emperor Gordian III died and was succeeded by Philippus Arabs, who owed his throne to the Sassanid king Shapur I. Even worse was to come. In 256 Shapur captured Satala (the fortress of XV Apollinaris), and two years later he sacked Trapezus. When the Roman Emperor Valerian tried to restore order and invaded Mesopotamia, he was defeated and captured. Captive Roman soldiers were ordered to build a bridge at modern Shushtar. These Roman defeats are commemorated on several Sassanid monuments. However, under the emperors Odaenathus of Palmyra (261-267) and Diocletian (284-305), the Romans restored their control, and in 298, a peace treaty was concluded in which the Persians had to give up territories in northern Mesopotamia. The sixteenth legion must have played a role during these campaigns, but we have almost no information about them.

In the fourth century, the Sixteenth was still guarding the Euphrates, but had been transferred to Sura, which was downstream from Samosata. It is possible (but unknown) that XVI Flavia became an Eastern Empire legion after the fall of the west, as many did.


Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Italic Type D (Krefeld) helmet

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Screenshots:

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Legio XX Valeria Victrix:



Valiant and Victorious

Legio XX Valeria Victrix was probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. It served in Hispania, Illyricum, and Germania before participating in the invasion of Britannia in 43, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century. The emblem of the legion was a boar.

The Valeria part of Legio XX cognomen is difficult to understand: it might be related to the concept of military value; other's suggest a relationship with the Valeria gens, or with the black eagle.

XX Valeria Victrix was part of the great army that campaigned against the Cantabrians in Hispania Tarraconensis from 25 to 13 BC. The legion then moved to Illyricum, and is recorded in the army of Tiberius operating against the Marcomanni in AD 6. In one battle the legion cut through the enemy lines, was surrounded, and cut its way out again. After the disaster of Varus in AD 9, XX Valeria Victrix moved to Germania Inferior and was based at Oppidum Ubiorum (Cologne), then moved to Novaesium (Neuss) some time during Tiberius' reign.

This legion was one of the four with which Claudius invaded Britain in 43, after which it encamped at Camulodunum (Colchester), with some units at Kingsholm in Gloucester. In 60 or 61 it helped put down the revolt of queen Boudica; it is possible that the Twentieth legion was awarded its Valeria Victrix (Valiant and Victorious) cognomen as a consequence of its contribution in this war. In the year of the four emperors, the legion sided with Vitellius, some units going with him to Rome. In 78-84, it was part of Gnaeus Julius Agricola's campaigns in northern Britain and Scotland, and built the base at Inchtuthil that they occupied until returning south in 88 and occupying Castra Devana (Chester), where it remained for at least two centuries.

It is evident that Valeria Victrix was one of the legions involved with the construction of Hadrian's Wall, and the discovery of stone altars commemorating their work in Caledonia suggests that they had some role in the building of the Antonine Wall. During the reign of the usurper emperors Carausius and Allectus (286-293 and 293-296) XX Valeria Victrix was still active; no records, however, are present in the 4th century. This legion has been much studied; at least 250 members of the legion have been identified in surviving inscriptions.

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Legio XXI Rapax:




History:

Legio XXI Rapax (Predator)

This legion was probably founded after 31BC by Emperor Augustus, who may have integrated older units into this new legion and added new recruits from northern Italy. Its first assignment may have been in Hispania Taraconensis, where it took part in Augustus' campaigns against the Cantabrians, which lasted from 25-13 BC. However, the legion's stay in Hispania is nothing but a hypothesis. We have more certainty about its stay in Raetia, which was annexed in 15 by Augustus' son-in-law Tiberius (the future emperor). Its base was probably at Regina Castra, modern Regensburg.

In 6AD, Tiberius was to lead at least eight legions (VIII Augusta from Pannonia, XV Apollinaris and XX Valeria Victrix from Illyricum, XXI Rapax from Raetia, XIII Gemina, XIV Gemina and XVI Gallica from Germania Superior and an unknown unit) against king Maroboduus of the Marcomanni in Czechia. At the same time, I Germanica, V Alaudae, XVII, XVIII and XIX were to move against Maroboduus along the Elbe. It was to be the most grandiose operation that was ever conducted by a Roman army, but a rebellion in Pannonia obstructed its execution. XXI Rapax was involved in its suppression. After the disaster of Varus in the Teutoburg Forest (September 9AD), where Legions XVII, XVIII and XIX were destroyed, the legion was redeployed in the province of Germania Inferior. It shared its base at Xanten with V Alaudae, keeping an eye on the nearby tribes of the Cugerni and Batavians, and guarding the confluence of the Rhine and Lippe. Both units took part in the Germanic campaigns of Germanicus in the first years of the reign of Tiberius.

In 21, a mixed subunit of XXI Rapax and XX Valeria Victrix, commanded by an officer from I Germanica, was sent out to suppress the rebellion of the Turoni in Gaul, who had revolted against the heavy Roman taxation under a nobleman named Julius Sacrovir and Julius Florus. Almost twenty years later, the Twenty-first was employed during the Germanic war of Caligula. The details, however, are not fully understood. After Claudius' invasion of Britain in 43, XXI Rapax was redeployed in Germania Superior, which was now undergarrisoned. After a possible (but not proved) brief stay at Strasbourg, our unit was transferred to Vindonissa (modern Windisch in Switzerland), where it succeeded XIII Gemina. Here, it defended the passes across the Alps against a possible Germanic invasion of Italy.

In 47, the soldiers rebuilt the fortress, which had been constructed out of wood, from natural stone and bricks. At Ruperswyl, they built kilns, where tiles and pottery were produced - not only for Windisch, but also for other military settlements in this area.

In the civil war after the suicide of the Emperor Nero (June, 68), the Twenty-first sided with Vitellius, the commander of the army of Germania Inferior. In fact, the twenty-first legion was the most important element in the army of Vitellius' General Caecina. It crossed the Alps during the winter, defeated the army of Otho at Cremona, marched on Rome and was victorious (69). However, before the year was out, Vitellius' army had been defeated by the troops of another pretender, Vespasian, who was to reign until 79. It took several months before the new emperor could send a strong army to recover the Rhineland, which had been overrun by rebellious Batavians. The expeditionary force was commanded by Vespasian's relative Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and XXI Rapax was one of its units. It fought at Trier and must have been present during the battle of Xanten. After the reconquest, the Twenty-first was replaced at Windisch by XI Claudia and initially garrisoned at Bonn in Germania Inferior, but sent back to Superior in 83 when Vespasian's son, the emperor Domitian, launched a war against the Chatti in Baden-Württemberg. Bonn was occupied by the recently founded I Minervia.

From now on, Mainz was the legionary base of XXI Rapax and XIV Gemina. When in 89 the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, revolted against the lawful Emperor Domitian, the two legions supported him. However, the insurrection was suppressed by the legions of Germania Inferior and the two rebellious units were immediately separated - the Twenty-first being sent to Pannonia, where war against the tribes of the Middle Danube -the Suebians and Iazyges - was imminent. Here, the Twenty-first was destroyed in 92 by the Sarmatians.

The legionary symbol of XXI Rapax was the Capricorn, which was often used by units that had been founded by the Emperor Augustus.


Equipment:
Lorica Segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Manica
Pompeii Gladius: Pompei (or Pompeianus or Pompeii): Named by moderns after the Roman town of Pompeii, which was destroyed by volcanic eruption, 79 AD, with great loss of life, despite efforts of the Roman navy to get them out. Four instances of the sword type were found there, with others turning up elsewhere. The sword has parallel cutting edges and a triangular tip. Original blade length of 60 cm, blade length from circa 75 A.D. of 68 cm - 71 cm. From circa 100 A.D. of 83 cm (semi-spatha). From now on the Roman Gladius will be of middle-length.
Imperial Gallic Type F

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Screenshots:

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Legio XXII Deiotariana:




History:
Legio XXII Deiotariana

One of the original 28 Augustan Legions

The legion was levied by Deiotarus, king of the Celtic tribe of the Tolistobogii, who lived in Galatia, modern Turkey. Deiotarus became an ally of the Roman Republic general Pompey in 63 BC, who named him king of all the Celtic tribes of Turkey, which were collectively known as Galatians (hence the name Galatia for the region). Deiotarus levied an army and trained it with Roman help; the army, in 48 BC, was composed of 12,000 infantrymen and 2,000 horsemen. Cicero writes that the army was divided into to thirty cohortes, which were roughly equivalent to three Roman legions of the time. This army supported the Romans in their wars against king Mithridates VI of Pontus, and contributed to Roman victory in the Third Mithridatic War.

After a heavy defeat against king Pharnaces II of Pontus near Nicopolis, the survivor soldiers of Deiotarius' army formed a single legion, which marched besides Julius Caesar during his victorious campaign against Pontus, and fought with him in the battle of Zela (47 BC).

When the Roman Empire integrated the Galatian kingdom, this legion, which had been trained by the Romans and had fought under Roman commanders, became part of the Roman army; since Caesar Augustus had already 21 legions, the legion received the number XXII. Augustus sent the Twenty-second to camp in Nicopolis (next Alexandria, in Aegyptus) together with III Cyrenaica. These two legions had the role of garrisoning the Egyptian province from threats both within and without, given the multi-ethnical nature of Alexandria.

Under Trajan, XXII was officially known as 'Deiotariana', even if this was its unofficial name since Claudian times. The last record of XXII Deiotariana is from 119. In 145, when a list of all existing legions was made, XXII Deiotariana was not listed. It is likely that XXII Deiotariana was destroyed during the Jewish rebellion of Simon bar Kochba (132-136).


Equipment:
Lorica segmentata
Weighted Pilum
Mainz gladius: Mainz was founded as the Roman permanent camp of Moguntiacum probably in 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword manufacture probably began in the camp and was continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentilius Victor, a veteran of Legio XXII, used his discharge bonus on retirement to set up a business as a negotiator gladiarius, a manufacturer and dealer of arms. Swords made at Mainz were sold extensively to the north. They are characterized by a slight waist running the length of the blade and a long point. Blade width 7-8 cm. Blade length 66 cm - 70 cm.
Imperial Gallic Type I (Aquincum)

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Screenshots:

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Legio XXII Primigenia:



History:

Legio XXII

Legio XXII Primigenia was levied by emperor Caligula in 39, for his campaigns in Germania. There are still records of XXII Primigenia in Moguntiacum (modern Mainz) at the end of the 3rd century. The legion's symbols were a Capricorn and the demigod Hercules. XXII Primigenia was first stationed in Moguntiacum in the Roman province of Germania Superior, guarding the Rhine border as part of the limes. Along with the rest of the Germanic army, the legion supported Vitellius in the Year of the four emperors (69). During the Batavian rebellion, XXII Primigenia, commanded by Gaius Dillius Vocula, was the only Germanic legion that survived attacks of the rebels and stayed in its camp, defending Moguntiacum. They remained in Moguntiacum until at least the 3rd century. Later emperor Hadrian was tribunus militum of the XXIIth in 97-98. The Rhine settlement was their main camp, but subunits of the legion participated in the building of the Antonine wall in Scotland (2nd century) and in the campaigns against the Sassanid Empire (around 235). They were still in Moguntiacum during the attack of the tribe of the Alamanni in 235, and were responsible for the lynching of Emperor Alexander Severus, when he tried to negotiate with the enemy, and the subsequent election of Maximinus Thrax as new emperor. In 268, the Primigenia probably fought under Gallienus at the Battle of Naissus, winning a victory over the Goths. The following year, Laelianus, the commander of the 22nd, became emperor of the Gallic empire.

Equipment:

Imperial Gallic Type G helmet

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Screenshots:

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Early Praetorians:




Early Praetorian Legion I


The Praetorians were 'elite Legionaries', recruited mainly from within Italy's central regions, but sometimes from the provinces, and mostly the bravest and best of the other legions.

Equipment and armour were basically the same as other legions, except for specially decorated breastplates, excellent for parades and state functions. Insignia of the "Moon and Stars" and the "Scorpion" were particularly associated with the Praetorians. Thus, each guardsman possessed two suits of armour, one for Roman duty and one for the field (lorica).

Originally, praetorians were chosen to guard the 'praetorium' - the tent of the legate of the legion while in the field. These men came to act as bodyguards for all important generals, before being made into specific formations that were considered useful in politics as well as war. It was Augustus who established the Praetorian Guard as both a bodyguard and for useful intimidation in Rome. Although its name has become synonymous with intrigue, conspiracy, disloyalty and assassination, it could be argued that for the first two centuries of its existence the Praetorian Guard was, on the whole, a positive force in the Roman state. During this time it mostly removed (or allowed to be removed) cruel, weak and unpopular emperors while generally supporting just, strong and popular ones. By protecting these monarchs, thus extending their reigns, and also by keeping the disorders of the mobs of Rome and the intrigues of the Senate in line, the Guard helped give the empire much needed stability that led to the period known as the 'Pax Romana'.

Only after the reign of Marcus Aurelius (who they murdered), when this period is generally considered to have ended, the guard began to deteriorate into the ruthless, mercenary and meddling force for which it has become infamous. However, during the Severan dynasty and afterwards during the crises of the 3rd century, the legions, the Senate and the emperors, along with the rest of Roman government were falling into decadence as well.


Screenshots:

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Late Praetorians:






Late Praetorian Legion


The Praetorians were 'elite Legionaries', recruited mainly from within Italy's central regions, but sometimes from the provinces, and mostly the bravest and best of the other legions.

Equipment and armour were basically the same as other legions, except for specially decorated breastplates, excellent for parades and state functions. Insignia of the "Moon and Stars" and the "Scorpion" were particularly associated with the Praetorians. Thus, each guardsman possessed two suits of armour, one for Roman duty and one for the field (lorica).

Originally, praetorians were chosen to guard the 'praetorium' - the tent of the legate of the legion while in the field. These men came to act as bodyguards for all important generals, before being made into specific formations that were considered useful in politics as well as war. It was Augustus who established the Praetorian Guard as both a bodyguard and for useful intimidation in Rome. Although its name has become synonymous with intrigue, conspiracy, disloyalty and assassination, it could be argued that for the first two centuries of its existence the Praetorian Guard was, on the whole, a positive force in the Roman state. During this time it mostly removed (or allowed to be removed) cruel, weak and unpopular emperors while generally supporting just, strong and popular ones. By protecting these monarchs, thus extending their reigns, and also by keeping the disorders of the mobs of Rome and the intrigues of the Senate in line, the Guard helped give the empire much needed stability that led to the period known as the 'Pax Romana'.

Only after the reign of Marcus Aurelius (who they murdered), when this period is generally considered to have ended, the guard began to deteriorate into the ruthless, mercenary and meddling force for which it has become infamous. However, during the Severan dynasty and afterwards during the crises of the 3rd century, the legions, the Senate and the emperors, along with the rest of Roman government were falling into decadence as well.

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"Rebel" Praetorians:

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Praetorian cavalry:




History:

Praetorian cavalry are an elite within the elite: dedicated bodyguards who serve as heavy cavalry. Praetorian training is, as might be expected, demanding and thorough. These men are some of the best, toughest, most unflinching soldiers in Rome - and good cavalrymen to boot! As heavy cavalry, it is their task to smash enemy formations and drive them from the field, fighting with their cavalry-pattern swords (longer than the original legionary gladius) once close combat is joined.\n\nHistorically, the original praetorians were men chosen to guard the tent (the praetorium) of the legion's legate. These men came to act as bodyguards for all important generals, and then became an elite quite separate from the originating legions. These men serve as the Praetorian Prefect's Guard, and also as the Praetorian Legion's Cavalry support.

Equipment:


Screenshots:

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Late Centurions: