• Guns, Faith and Steel: The role of religion in the Spanish Conquest of South America and post-Colonial Society



    Guns, Faith and Steel: The role of religion in the Spanish Conquest of South America and post-Colonial Society
    by isa0005




    It is November 15, 1532 and the expedition of Spanish conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, advances upon the city of Cajamarca at the heart of the Inca Empire, Peru. Ahead lies an insurmountable challenge -- 80,000 Inca warriors and the Imperial retinue of the Inca Emperor, Atahualpa. [1] Yet despite the odds, within twenty-four hours, over 7,000 Inca warriors would lie slain or captured, the army scattered to the winds with their emperor captured and languishing in Spanish chains.[2] It is here that a reign of colonial terror would begin sweeping across South America. This article will discuss the role of religion in the Spanish conquest of South America. It will explore how the Spanish used their religion to ‘legitimise’ atrocities against the Incas, including the theft of land, enslavement and genocide. To understand the role of religion in South American conquest, this essay explores Spanish and Inca religious and historical background.

    During the Age of Discovery, (approx. 1400-1800 CE), European nations adopted a policy of colonialism to expand their wealth and power. The Crown of Castile (Spain) established a huge ‘colonial empire’.[3] It used Catholic doctrine to establish a ‘legal’ monopoly on trade from the 'New World' which legitimized Spain’s right of conquest before God.[4] Yet how was this possible? In what way did religion allow Spain to reach such heights? To answer these questions, one needs to understand both the historical context behind the Spanish Conquest of South America and the history of Inca Society.

    The Inca Empire was the largest nation in pre-Columbian America. Its territory stretched from modern day Ecuador and Bolivia to North-western Argentina and central Chile.[5] Its capital Cusco was its religious, political and military centre.[6] The Emperor at the time of the Conquest was Atahualpa, ruled his Empire with his ‘Council of the Realm[7]’. The civil war which brought Atahualpa’s to the throne laid the foundations for the collapse of the nation. Historian Jared Diamond notes that while the Spanish Conquest was undoing of the Inca Empire’s, it was the civil war that was the proverbial straw that broke the llama’s back, bringing about the Inca Empire’s decline and eventual collapse.[8]

    Atahualpa seized control of the Empire from his brother, Huáscar.[9]According to contemporary Spanish historian, Juan de Betanzos, Huáscar ruled with an iron fist, stealing the wives, lands and property of his lords and clergy without reason.[10] This showed disrespect towards Inca culture and religion and many of the Inca nobility called on Atahualpa to dethrone his brother.[11] Huáscar launched a preemptive strike against Atahualpa[12], however he failed to defeat his-half brother who had accrued much support.[13] Huáscar sued for an uneasy peace, which would last for five years. However, by 1529, relations between the two brothers had deteriorated and war soon followed[14].

    The Inca Civil War lasted for three years, Atahualpa emerging victorious. However, just days after Atahualpa’s forces won the decisive Battle of Quipaipan (April, 1532 C.E.) he was captured by Pizarro at Cajamarca. With Atahualpa held as hostage[15] and his Empire destabilized by the civil war, the scene was set for Spain to subjugate the Incas.

    Spain believed Catholicism gave it the moral license to subjugate Inca society and allowed them to utilise genocidal brutality to pursue these ends. The Requirement of 1513 (the Requerimento) was an ordained declaration of Spain’s right to subjugate and exploit the lands of the 'New World' and its indigenous population.[16] It also called for the Native Americans to convert to the Catholic faith and submit to Spain and the demands of the Pope in Rome.[17] Rejection of this declaration ―which was seldom read in any native language and so was not understood by the local population ― was considered an affront to God’.[18] The Requerimento authorised retribution on those who rejected it: “we (Spain) [...] shall make war against you in all ways and manners that we can, and shall subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and of their Highnesses; we shall take you and your wives and your children, and shall make slaves of them, and as such shall sell and dispose of them as their Highnesses may command [...] (the) deaths and losses which you shall accrue from this are your fault.[19]

    The Requerimiento’s origins lie in the papal bull entitled the Dum Diversas (Latin: “Until Different”) issued by Pope Nicholas V to the King Alfonso V of Portugal in 1452.[20] This papal bull was granted with reference to Reconquista (711 - 1492 C.E.) which authorised a holy war between the Christian and Muslim Iberia (Spain, Portugal etc.).[21] The Dum Diversas legitimized the conquest and enslavement of “Saracens (Muslims) and pagans and any other unbelievers and enemies of Christ.[22] With the discovery of the 'New World', the theological and political framework set by the Dum Diversas and the Reconquista, was applied by Spain to Indigenous Americans.

    It would take a generation for the Spanish to convert all of the South American continent to the “one true religion.”[23] However, Spanish efforts where not without their setbacks. While the Saracens had rejected the Catholic faith outright[24], the indigenous Americans had never come into contact with Christianity. Thus, it was argued that the Dum Diversas made Spain’s conquest and exploitation of the Americas illegitimate. This was the view of many Dominican friars who strongly denounced the enslavement and mistreatment of indigenous peoples. Who argued that under canon law, Native Americans could not be legitimate targets for subjugation[25] as they were not considered “enemies of Christ”.[26] They took their concerns to the Spanish King who established a royal commision.[27]The Spanish circumvented this limitation, however, by arguing that the Inca were barbarians due to their fierce pagan gods and such practices as the of ‘Qhapaq hucha’ or human sacrifice: the ritualistic strangulation and mummification of human children.[28] Thus it was Spain’s responsibility to subjugate and ‘civilise’ them in the name of God.[29] Their rejection of and inability to understand the Requerimento, aided in this.

    This Spanish moral license to subjugate the Inca was also supported by another papal bull, the Inter caetera (Latin: "Among other [works]"). Issued in 1493 by Pope Alexander VI, the Inter caetera was a ‘donation’ by the Papacy, granting Spain sovereignty of all lands “discovered and to be discovered towards the west [...] by drawing and establishing a line from [...] the north, to the south, [...] to be distant one hundred leagues [...] west and south from [...] the islands [...] (of the) Azores and Cape Verde.[30]” More importantly however, the Inter caetera called for all good Christians to increase and spread “the Catholic faith and the Christian religion” in an effort to ensure that “the health of souls be cared for and that barbarous nations be overthrown and brought to the faith itself.[31]” The Inter caetera was one of three other papal bulls issued that granted overseas territories in Southeast Asia, India, Africa and Greater Americas. These were called the ‘Bulls of Donation’ or the ‘Alexandrine Bulls.[32]’ Today, there has been a series of protests that have called on the Papacy to repeal these bulls, to remind Catholic leaders of the atrocities that were committed and justified by them.[33]

    These papal bulls called upon the faithful to convert the native peoples of South America, drawing countless European colonists to the 'New World'. With them, they brought their businesses, weapons, culture and of course religion. However, with their arrival also came Catholic priests who served as the long arm of Catholic canon law. Their role was not only to minister to the masses, but also to maintain a strict ideological control over native and colonist alike to ensure that the power the Papacy held over the 'Old World'[34] would extend to the ‘New World.’ The church converted millions of natives to the new faith, establishing a vast clerical network that the Church used to monitor and control the cultural and ideological underpinnings of the new colonial society.[35] In this way, the Church's temporal powers attained an unparalleled level of influence over the Americas, that at times even eclipsed and clashed with Spain’s ambitions as well.[36]

    The role of religion during the Spanish Conquest of the Americas was twofold. First it allowed Spain to legitimize almost any of its actions in the Americas, regardless of how brutal they were. Second, religion also allowed Spain to monopolize trade and territory in the Americas. Yet Spain was by no means the only realm to benefit from their conquests. Besides Portugal, the only other nation that established an American colonial Empire that rivaled Spain’s, the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, arguably reigned supreme over all. When Christopher Columbus set out believing himself to be appointed by God to “[...] propagate His holy name and his Gospel throughout the universe[37]” what he missed as Tzvetan Todorov states, was that spiritual conquest is deeply tied to material conquest.[38] In this way, it was in the Church’s best interests to establish a physical presence in the Americas. This was done not only through their own agents, but also through local parishes and diocese clergy.[39] The level of control became so great that by the early 20th century, South America fell completely under the control of the Church.[40] However, despite the primacy of Spain, Portugal and the Catholic Church other non-Catholic European nations began to see the benefits of establishing their own colonial holdings in the Americas.

    European nations like England and the Netherlands also became interested in establishing their own colonies after seeing the wealth that colonialism provided. Following the Inter caetera the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) was issued, assuring Spain’s dominance over the region. It established a “Papal line of demarcation,” which essentially gave Spain and Portugal free reign over any lands and people beyond it. The treaty omitted all other European nations however, especially those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648).[41] As such Spain became the target of a brutal propaganda campaign, the ‘Spanish Black Legend’ or ‘ la leyenda negra’.[42]

    Historian Edward Peters explores this “image of Spain circulated through late sixteenth-century Europe.” Created as a means to disrupt Spanish hegemony, the “political and religious propaganda (...) blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries.[43]” Fellow historian Philip Wayne Powell notes that Spaniards who came to the 'New World' seeking opportunity were labelled as “cruel and greedy" or “goldseekers", or other opprobrious epithets virtually synonymous with Devils.[44]” Yet when the English or the Dutch came to the 'New World' seeking those same opportunities they were called "colonists," or "homebuilders," or "seekers after liberty.[45]" Powell also notes that brutalities were committed against the natives by all Europeans, yet while Spain was labeled as intolerant, bigoted fanatics, the English and the Dutch were seen as "unifying the nation.[46]" In this way religion was used by other nations springboard their colonial ambitions. Despite this however, Europeans regarded the natives in an identical light, that is the untamed savage in need of European civilisation and the Christian God. The Incas in particular, were noted as true savages, however, this demonstrably incorrect.

    Despite their different religious and cultural practices, which today might seem brutal and even bloodthirsty, the Inca were indeed a very advanced society if not “the most sophisticated found among native peoples" in the Americas.[47]Notwithstanding the opinions 'Old World' nations the Inca Empire was anything but a barbarous, savage nation. In fact, evidence clearly shows that Inca society was just as complex and enlightened as any of their European counterparts. In the conquest of the Americas, religion was bent to serve the will of the powerful as a justification for the theft of resources and brutal repression of indigenous people.
    Inca society was a centralized federalist bureaucracy, based on the essential belief of reciprocal exchange.[48] This notion of reciprocity, that is the interchange of support and cooperation between individuals, among communities and Inca rulers for the betterment of the Empire as a whole, permeated throughout every aspect of Inca society from community to state and religion.[49]
    All of the Empire’s people worked the lands and payed tribute in goods to the Inca, that is the ruling classes who served as representatives of the god Inti, the deity of the Sun and chief of the Inca polytheistic pantheon.[50] In exchange for their work, the Empire provide its people with supplies,[51] chicha (a fermented sometimes alcoholic beverage usually made from grains, maize or fruit[52]) and various public works and services such as the equal allotment land, redistributing tributed resources to communities in need, providing social welfare during times of crisis as well as building vast roads, great warehouses, communication networks, public housing and fortifications.[53] Such a society can hardly been seen as savage and barbarous, contrary to the statements made in the Dum Diversas and the Inter Caetera. The Inca were in some regards more enlightened as seen in their proto-welfare state that was centuries ahead of any European nation. These achievements are all the more astounding given the fact that they were accomplished all without the benefit of the wheel[54] or a formal system of writing.[55]

    Despite the achievements of the Inca, their society would crumble under the Spanish jackboot and iron grip of the Catholic Church. Spain’s brutal tactics the Papacy’s subversive infiltration of local communities systematically dismantled Inca culture and society forcing it underground. While the Inca were converted to Catholicism, many aspects of their culture and other other Andean cultures still persist to this day. Many ancient religious Inca and Andean ceremonies are still practiced: for example, one of the most important festivals of the Inca Empire, the ‘Inti Raymi'rata’ or the ‘sun festival’ still celebrated every winter solstice. This celebration honours the most venerable of the Inca gods, Inti[56], although today it is more associated with the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist, and is still a uniquely Inca celebration.[57] While Spanish is the predominant language of South America, Quechua it is still the most widely spoken indigenous language family on the continent, with approximately 8–10 million speakers.[58] 25% of Peruvians speak it and its related dialects.[59]45% of South American peoples are of native Andean descent, 37% are of mixed ethnicity and 15% are of European heritage.[60] Many of the old Andean and Inca social structures still exist today as well. For example, the ayllu which are self-sustainable farming communities, built on the ancient reciprocal beliefs of the Incas of old. Today, these ayllus provide “a combination of kinship and territorial ties, as well as symbolism[61]” for native Andean cultural heritage, while also providing security for local farmland[62] and representative bodies in local, state and federal government.[63]One can argue that the persistence of the Inca culture would not have occurred if it was the barbarous savagery that the Spanish and the Pope believed it to be.

    Religion had many roles in the Spanish conquest of South America. First and foremost, it was used to legitimize the conquest of the Inca Empire, sanctioning numerous atrocities against the Inca people. These atrocities included enslavement, genocide, the seizing of native land and outright war. This was rationalized by the notion that the Inca people where apparently unsophisticated savages in need of the Christian God's guiding light. Second, religion also allowed Spain to establish an economic and territorial monopoly on South America, with the support of the Papacy. Besides Portugal, for a time this denied other European nations any possibility of establishing their own colonial territories. Third, religion also made it possible for the Catholic Church to infiltrate Peruvian/Andean society, establishing itself as the supreme power in region right up until the 20th century. To this day, Catholicism is the major religion of South America. Religion didn’t always work in Spain's or the Papacy’s favour: other European nations, particularly Protestant countries, used religion to counter Spain’s divine ‘right’ to dominate the Americas. In this way Spain’s national character was deeply fractured, allowing for other European realms to reap the rewards the Americas offered, all the while committing their own atrocious actions against native Americans. Despite this however, Inca culture and language persists to this very day. This is testament to how sophisticated the Inca Empire truly was, its society still influencing South America in the modern 21st Century.

    End Notes

    [1]
    Francis, M. Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia (CA, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006) p.322

    [2]Diamond, J. Guns, Germs and Steel (NY: Random House, 2013) p.76

    [3]Lockhart, J.; Schwartz, S, B. Early Latin America (NY: Cambridge University Press 1983) p.19

    [4]Allard, P. “Slavery and Christianity” Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. XIV (NY: Robert Appleton Company, 1912) n.p.

    [5] Schwartz, G, M.; Nichols, J, J. After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies (AZ: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 2010) n.p.

    [6]Burkholder M, A.; Johnson L, L., Colonial Latin America, 7th ed. (NY: Oxford University Press 2010) p.19

    [7]Prescott, W, H.; Kirk, J, F. History of the conquest of Peru (Philadelphia: L. B. Lippincott, 1904) p. 52.

    [8]Diamond, J. (2013) p.77

    [9]Diamond, J. (2013) p.77

    [10]de Betanzos, J., Narratives of the Incas (1576) ed. Buchanan, D, tr. Hamilton, Roland (TX: University of Texas Press, 1996) n.p.

    [11]de Betanzos, J (1996) n.p.

    [12]Pease García-Yrigoyen, F. The Last Incas of Cuzco] (Peru, Lima: National Institution of Culture, 1972) p. 97

    [13]Pease García-Yrigoyen, F. (1972) p.97

    [14]Pease García-Yrigoyen, F. (1972) p.97

    [15] Prescott, W, H.; Kirk, J, F. p.104-5

    [16]de Palacios, J, L. ‘Spanish Requirement of 1513’ (1513) World Heritage Encyclopedia
    <http://www.worldheritage.org/article...ent%20of%20151> accessed 27 Jul. 2018.

    [17]de Palacios, J, L (1513) n.p.

    [18] Schwaller, J, F. ‘The History of the Catholic Church in Latin America, From Conquest to Revolution and Beyond.’ (NY: New York University Press. 2011) p. 49

    [19]de Palacios, J, L (1513) n.p.

    [20] “Dum Diversas” (1452) in Jordão, L, M. Bullarium Patronatus Portugalliae Regum (Ex Typographia nationali, 1868) tr. @Boniface Unam Sanctam Catholicam.
    <http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspo...anslation.html> accessed 24 Jul. 2018.

    [21]“Dum Diversas” (1452)

    [22]“Dum Diversas” (1452)

    [23]Means, P, A. Fall of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Rule in Peru, 1430-1780 (NY: Scribner, 1932) n.p

    [24]de Palacios, J, L. ‘Spanish Requirement of 1513’ (1513) n.p.

    [25] Hugh, T. Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003) pp.258-262

    [26]“Dum Diversas” (1452)

    [27]Hugh, T. (2003) pp.258-262

    [28]Valerie, A. et al "Investigating a child sacrifice event from the Inca heartland" Journal of Archaeological Science. vol. 38/2, (2011), 323–333

    [29] Alexander VI, “Inter Caetera: Division of the Undiscovered world between Spain and Portugal” (1493) Papal Encyclicals Online.
    <http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Alex06/alex06inter.htm> accessed 12 Jul. 2018.

    [30]Alexander VI (1493)

    [31]Alexander VI (1493)

    [32]Linden H, V., 'Alexander VI and the demarcation of the maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal 1493-4', The American Historical Review vol. 22 (1916)

    [33]Allen Jr J, L. "Indigenous demand revocation of 1493 papal bull", National Catholic Reporter (2000)
    <http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archiv...00/102700f.htm> accessed 10 Jul. 2018.

    [34]Schwaller, J, F “The Church in Colonial Latin America” Oxford Bibliographies (1993)
    <http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/...66581-0180.xml> accessed 22 Jul. 2018.

    [35]Schwaller, J, F (1993)

    [36] Schwaller, J, F (1993)

    [37]Columbus, C. (1501) in Todorov, T The Conquest of Americas: The Question of the Other, tr. Howard, R. (OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) p.10

    [38] Todorov, T (1984) p.10

    [39]Schwaller, J, F (1993)

    [40]Schwaller, J, F (1993)

    [41]Parry, J. H. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650. (London: Cardinal, 1973) p. 205

    [42]Powell, P, W. Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting the United States Relations with the Hispanic World (NM, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971) p.134

    [43]Powell, P, W. (1971) p.11

    [44]Petters, E. Inquisition (LA, Berkley: University of California Press, 1989) p.131

    [45]Powell, P, W. (1971 ) p.34

    [46]Powell, P, W. (1971 ) p.11

    [47]Burkholder M, A.; Johnson L, L. (2010) p.19

    [48]Rowe, J, H. in The Handbook of South American Indians: The Andean Civilizations. 143/2. ed. Steward, J, H. (DC: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Biodiversity Heritage Library, 1985) p.262

    [49]Craig, M.; von Hagen, A. The Incas (London: Thames & Hudson, 2011) pp.48-45

    [50]Craig, M.; von Hagen (2011) pp.48-45

    [51]Craig, M.; von Hagen (2011) pp.48-45

    [52]Malpass, M, A. Daily Life in the Inca Empire (CT, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996) p.82

    [53]Maffie, J “Pre-Columbian Philosophies”. In Nuccetelli, S. et al A Companion to Latin American Philosophy (NJ, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2013) pp.137-138.

    [54]McEwan, G, F. The Incas: New Perspectives (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006) pp.183-185

    [55]McEwan, G, F. (2006) p. 5

    [56] Krupp, E. Echoes of the Ancient Skies (TX, Mineola: Dova Publications, Inc., 1994) pp.199-201

    [57] Krupp, E. (1994) pp. 199-201

    [58]Adelaar, W, F. H.’ Mysken P C., The Languages of the Andes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) pp. 167-168, 255.

    [59] “The World Factbook” Central Intelligence Agency
    <https://www.cia.gov/library/publicat...k/geos/pe.html?> accessed 22 Jul. 2018.

    [60] “The World Factbook” Central Intelligence Agency

    [61]Bastien, J W. Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an Andean Ayllu (MN, Eagan West Publishing Company, 1978) p.23

    [62]McEwan, G, F. "Ayllu" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1 (NY,New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.) p. 248

    [63]Schilling-Vacaflor, A. "Indigenous identities and politico-juridical demands of CSUTCB and CONAMAQ in the constitutional change process of Bolivia". T'inkazos. (2008).
    <http://socialsciences.scielo.org/sci...pt=sci_arttext>


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    <http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspo...anslation.html> accessed 28 Jul, 2018
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    - Craig, M.; von Hagen, A. The Incas (London: Thames & Hudson, 2011)
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    - Krupp, E. Echoes of the Ancient Skies (TX, Mineola: Dova Publications, Inc., 1994)
    - Klar, N. ‘Essay: What was the role of the church in the conquest and colonization of Latin America? Did it vary in different areas and was there a true spiritual conquest?’ Klarbooks (1993)
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    - Means, P A. Fall of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Rule in Peru, 1430-1780 (NY: Scribner, 1932)
    - Malpass, M A. Daily Life in the Inca Empire (CT, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996)

    - Maffie, J., “Pre-Columbian Philosophies”. In Nuccetelli, S. et al A Companion to Latin American Philosophy (NJ, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2013)

    - McEwan, G F. The Incas: New Perspectives (NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006)

    - McEwan, G F. "Ayllu" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1 (NY,New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.)
    - Pease García-Yrigoyen, F. The Last Incas of Cuzco (Peru, Lima: National Institution of Culture, 1972)
    - Parry, J H. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650. (London: Cardinal, 1973)

    - Powell, P W. Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting the United States Relations with the Hispanic World (NM, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971)
    - Petters, E. Inquisition (LA, Berkley: University of California Press, 1989)
    - Prescott, W H.; Kirk, J, F. History of the conquest of Peru (Philadelphia: L. B. Lippincott, 1904)
    - Rowe, J H. in The Handbook of South American Indians: The Andean Civilizations. 143/2. ed. Steward, J, H. (DC: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Biodiversity Heritage Library, 1985)
    - Schwaller, J F., ‘The History of the Catholic Church in Latin America, From Conquest to Revolution and Beyond.’ (NY: New York University Press. 2011)
    - Schwartz, G, M.; Nichols, J J. After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies (AZ: Tuscon, University of Arizona Press, 2010)
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    <http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/...66581-0180.xml> accessed 22 Jul. 2018.
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    <http://socialsciences.scielo.org/sci...pt=sci_arttext>
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    <https://www.cia.gov/library/publicat...k/geos/pe.html?> accessed 22 Jul. 2018.
    Valerie, A.; Buzon, Michele R.; Gibaja, A M.; McEwan, G, F.; Simonetti, A.; Creaser, R A. (2011). "Investigating a child sacrifice event from the Inca heartland". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38/2
    Comments 3 Comments
    1. Swaeft's Avatar
      Swaeft -
      That is an impressive article, and an even more impressive Bibliography! Well done isa
    1. B. W.'s Avatar
      B. W. -
      Fast forward a few centuries and Simon Bolivar, who was a Freemason, was asked by american Freemasons about setting up American style republics in South America, he replied that it would be impossible due to the strong control of the Catholic Church in the region.
    1. isa0005's Avatar
      isa0005 -
      Thanks guys, I actually had no idea the article had been published until today!
      I’d love to hear everyone else’s thoughts!