RTR VII: Fate of Empires - Preview Three

[Tony83]

FOE Preview Three

Contents

Introduction
Epiros
Magna Graecia
Sicily
Greek Unit Preview
FOE - 280 BC
Battle Images
METalwork!
Afterword

Introduction

Welcome to our third FOE Preview. This time we are going to look at the Greeks, who were a major influence in the Western Mediteranean during our time period, and I have to thank one of our key RTR historians, Hamilcar Barca, who has has provided the wealth of background material on Epiros and Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece") that is included here today.

I have to apologise to those of you stuck with slow Internet connections. This issue of the preview is quite image heavy and may take a little while to download. Wherever possible I have fronted large images with thumbnails but, in some instances, even this may not suffice. So all I can do is ask you to be patient while it downloads and then hope that you will enjoy the read.

Epiros

King Pyrrhos of Epiros

The Epiros Faction

In RTRVII: FOE, the Epiros faction represents the mighty King Pyrrhos of Epiros and the Greeks of the West. The Greeks of the West include the many poleis (city-states) and tyrants of Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece", i.e. southern Italy) and eastern Sicily. By 280 BC the Italiot-Greeks of Magna Graecia were in decline and threatened by an expanding Rome, and the Siciliot-Greeks of Sicily had fallen from power into anarchy and stasis (i.e. intra-city factional violence).

King Pyrrhos of Epiros sailed from his kingdom to Italy in 280 BC to galvanise the Greeks of the West for one final effort, one last bid to throw off the yoke of the Roman and Carthaginian barbarians, and establish a great Hellenistic empire in the West, just as Alexander the Great did in the East some fifty years earlier.

King Pyrrhos of Epiros was thirty nine years of age in 280 BC, a veteran of the intrigues, campaigns and great battles of the Wars of the Diadochi ("Successors") after the death of Alexander the Great. Defeated in his bid for the Macedonian throne in 285 BC by the ruthless Diadoch Lysimachos, Pyrrhos was now forced to abandon his dream of winning the throne of Macedon. Instead, King Pyrrhos turned to thoughts of conquest and adventure in the West.

Pyrrhos used all his resources and prestige to prepare for his expedition to Italy. His rivals in Greece – the Macedonian dynasts Ptolemy Keraunos of Macedon, Antigonas II Gonatas, even Antiochus I of the Seleucids and Ptolemy II of Egypt, all gave him soldiers, money, even war elephants, so keen were they to see him depart Greece!

Pyrrhos was married to three noblewomen; his first bride was the Greek-Siciliot princess Lanassa, and her dowry included the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu). Lanassa was the daughter of Agathocles, the "King of Sicily". Pyrrhos also married a daughter of king Audoleon of the Paeonians (north of Macedonia), and Bircenna, the daughter of the King of the Illyrians, Bardyllis. Through these marriage ties, Epiros was now at peace with all its neighbours - and Pyrrhos was free to sail West.

Just as Alexander the Great conquered the Orient, Pyrrhos the Great aimed to conquer the West! King Pyrrhos aimed to not only rule his own kingdom of Epiros, but to make himself master of Magna Graecia in Italy and King of Sicily!

Kingdom of Epiros

Kingdom of Epiros

By the early 1st millennium BC three principal clusters of Greek-speaking Doric tribes inhabited the lands of Epiros. These were the Chaones of north western Epiros, the Molossians in the centre and the Thesprotians in the middle, and they were known collectively as Epirotes. Unlike the Greek tribes to the south, who developed into the city-states of the Archaic and Classical periods, the Epirotes lived in small villages. Epiros lay on the edge of the Greek world, and was far from peaceful, as it remained a frontier area contested between the Greek-speaking Epirote tribes and the Illyrian tribes of the Adriatic coastline and interior.

The Epirote tribes were regarded with some disdain by the Greek city-states. The fifth century BC historian Thucydides described them as "barbarians". The only Epirotes regarded as “truly Greek” were the Aeacidae, who claimed to be descended from Achilles. The Aeacidae established the Molossian dynasty, and it was the Molossians who conquered the Chaonians and Thesprontians, and forced them into a Molossian-dominated federation in c. 370 BC. Hence, there was in fact no “kingdom of Epiros” as such, but, rather, a kingdom of the Molossians, which, in turn, dominated the “Epirote Alliance” comprised of all the Epirote tribes. In time, the king of the Molossians was regarded as the royal dynasty of all the Epirote tribes, the other tribes having abolished their own monarchies, and sworn loyalty to the Molossian kings. This Epirote Alliance was later re-named the Epirote League, “Koinon of the Epirotes”, and it endured after the Molossian dynasty itself had failed.

Among the Molossians the institution of kingship was not absolute, but rather limited and constitutional. The custom of the Molossians was that the king and representatives from the country would gather at an annual festival held at the village of Pasaron, and the king was required to make lavish sacrifices to Zeus Areius, and promise to rule according to the laws and customs of the people and to protect and preserve the monarchy. Therefore, although the monarchy was hereditary, the Molossians regarded it as based on a mutual contract under oath between the king and his people – a contract renewed annually at Passaron. The representatives of the Molossian people also annually elected a member to the office of ‘Prostatis’ (Protector).

Epirote Coin

In the Hellenistic Period, the office of Prostatis was not necessarily held by a Molossian, but from any tribe in the Koinon of the Epirotes. The Koinon came to be dominated by a Council of Damiorgi (“co-rulers”), made up of representatives of all member peoples of the League. By the Hellenistic Period the Molossian kings were forced to rule in collaboration with the Prostatis and Damiorgi. The king ruled Epiros through his royal court and the “friends of the court”, favoured courtiers and despite institutions like the Council of Damiorgi, the king remained undisputed as the head of state and commander of the army in war.

The Molossians allied themselves with the increasingly powerful kingdom of Macedon and in 359 BC the Molossian princess Olympias, niece of Arybbas of Epirus, married King Philip II of Macedon. She was to become the mother of Alexander the Great. On the death of Arybbas, Alexander of Epirus succeeded to the throne and the title King of Epirus. Aeacides of Epiros, who succeeded Alexander, espoused the cause of Olympias against Kassander of the Antipatrid dynasty, but was dethroned in 313 BC. Aeacides’ son Pyrrhos came to throne in 295 BC. Pyrrhos added new lands to the Koinon of the Epirotes: in 295, as payment for assisting Alexander of the Antipatrid dynasty win the kingdom of Macedon, he won the ownership of the old Macedonian provinces of Tymphaea and Parauaea, in addition to Acarnania, Amphilochia and the prosperous city of Ambracia; and, the island of Corkyra was given to him as dowry for his wedding to Lanassa, the daughter of Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse, in 294.

Epiros remained a sparsely populated land of villages in the Hellenistic period the only exception being the rich and heavily populated area of Ambrakia, originally a colony of the Corinthians. In 338 Ambrakia came under Macedonian suzerainty, and in 295 Pyrrhos won possession of the city and made it the capital of his kingdom.

Epiros had a far greater religious significance than might have been expected given its geographical remoteness, due to the presence of the shrine and oracle at Dodona - regarded as second only to the more famous oracle at Delphi.

Magna Graecia

Greek-Italiot's of Magna Graecia

Tarentum and the Greek-Italiot's of Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece")

Tarentum (Greek Taras) was founded in 725 BC by Greek colonists from Sparta. With a fine harbour and fertile hinterland, the colony prospered, displacing the native Oinotrians and Messapians and becoming one of the wealthiest cities of Magna Graecia.

Yet the constant attacks of the native Oscan tribes – Lucanians and Bruttians – against the Greek cities of Magna Graecia posed a constant threat. By 400 BC all Campania had fallen to the Oscans except Neapolis. Moreover, from 390-379 BC Dionysius I of Syracuse campaigned in Italy. Using Lokri as his base, and operating in alliance with certain Oscan tribes, Dionysius destroyed, captured or forced into alliance all the Greek cities from Rhegium to Metapontum. Only Tarentum preserved its autonomy.

After the death of Dionysius I and fall of Dionysius II, the weakened Greek cities of Magna Graecia found it difficult to defend themselves from the Lucanians. The Italiote Greeks found a new protector and master in the Pythagorean statesmen Archytas. Under his able administration, Tarentine ambition, power and influence reached their height. The democratic political system of Tarentum proved stable and militaristic and Tarentum was able to field thirty thousand infantry and four thousand cavalry. The Lucanians were defeated, the Messapians pushed back, and Tarentine authority was established in the hinterland of Apulia. Tarentum now claimed to be the protector of the Hellenic cities of Italy, and dominated the Greek cities of Italy though the Italiote League. Archytas retired from power in around 360 BC.

Soon after Archytas retired, Tarentine power began to wither. Tarentum and the Italiote cities were attacked by the Bruttians and Lucanians in the 350s, and in desperation Tarentum appealed to their mother city for help; King Archidamnus III of Sparta campaigned in Italy throughout 343 until his death in 338. From 336-331 King Alexander the Molossian, king of Epiros and brother-in-law to King Phillip II of Macedonia, campaigned against the Bruttians and Lucanians, and finally against the Samnites. Tarentum’s prestige suffered when it failed to protect Kroton in 317 when it was besieged by the Bruttians – it was eventually saved by Syracuse. Again in 304 Tarentum called upon Sparta to assist it against the Lucanians and in 303 the Spartan prince Cleonymus responded to this appeal. The attempt by Agathocles of Syracuse between 298-294 BC to establish his hegemony in Magna Graecia only left several Greek cities destroyed and the remainder further weakened.

Tarentine Coin

After defeating the Samnites, Rome had grown over mighty, and stretched its ambitious hand into the south. In 285 the Greek cities of Thurii, Rhegium, Lokri and Kroton emancipated themselves from the Italiote League and Tarentine hegemony, accepted Roman garrisons, and thereby instead turned to Rome as their protector against the native tribes. Roman forces led by Gaius Fabricius Lucinius heavily defeated the barbarian Lucanians in 282. The Romans had demonstrated both power and a policy of mild treatment of “allies”. The hegemony of Tarentum in Magna Graecia was in tatters.

The appearance of ten Roman warships anchored off Tarentum was the final insult – a flagrant breach of the Roman-Tarentine treaty that forbade Roman warships from entering the Gulf of Tarentum. The Tarentine response was violent; their fleet sank the Roman ships, the crews were butchered, and the Tarentine army marched on the Italiote town of Thurii, expelled its Roman garrison, and forced it to again acknowledge the hegemony of mighty Tarentum. When Roman envoys arrived in Tarentum in 281 seeking an explanation for this act of war, they were publicly insulted, and their demands refused.

It was war. Faced with a new and formidable barbarian enemy, outnumbered, and lacking support from the Italiot League, the leading men of Tarentum urgently sent envoys to Pyrrhos, King of Epiros. Tarentum needed a champion, and Pyrrhos was the greatest general of the post-Alexander generation.

Sicily

Sicily

The Siciliot-Greeks of Sicily

Until recently, in 280 BC, the Greek-Siciliot city of Syracuse had been the centre of a powerful and feared kingdom! The mercenary soldier, tyrant and then king of Syracuse, Agathocles, ruled the Greeks of Sicily from 317-289 BC with an iron fist. During those years King Agathocles’ army of Greek and barbarian mercenaries (incl. Oscans, Etruscans and Gauls/Keltoi), together with a strong fleet of two hundred galleys, warred with Carthage in both Sicily and Africa, forced the Greek-Siciliot city-states of Sicily to accept him as ruler, forced the Greek-Italiote cities of Rhegium and Kroton to acknowledge him as their overlord, and even forced the barbarian Bruttians into obedience.

But when he died, in 289 BC, this “kingdom of Sicily” had been completely swept away in a nightmare of chaos, war and factional strife.

In 289 BC King Agathocles was poisoned by his slave Menon the Segestan. Menon was taken captive when Agathocles stormed his native city in 307 BC, and had become the king’s favourite because "of the beauty of his person". Menon pretended to be content, but he planned his revenge, and in 289 Menon poisoned the king, while his co-conspirator, the king’s grandson Archagathus (son of the Archagathus who was killed in Libya) murdered the king’s son and anointed heir, also named Agathocles. Upon the death of the king, the Syracusans attempted to recover their popular government, and confiscated the property of Agathocles. Meanwhile, Menon murdered his ally Archagathus, gained control of the king’s mercenaries, and moved on Syracuse intending to make himself tyrant there.

The people of Syracuse selected Hiketas as strategos of their citizen army, and dispatched him to fight Menon. After a long, indecisive struggle, the Carthaginians intervened to support Menon the Segestan, and the Syracusans were compelled to give four hundred hostages to the Carthaginians to make an end of hostilities and to restore the exiles. Syracuse then fell into civil war. First, the Syracusans and their "barbarian" mercenaries fought for control of the city, until in 288 BC the mercenaries were expelled from Syracuse. These exiled mercenaries began to march back to their homes in Campania, and en route were hospitably received into Messana. Here they slew their hosts in the night, married their wives, and took possession of the city. They had since been known as Mamertines – named after the Oscan god of war, Mamertos – and had been feared brigands and pirates in the straits of Messana ever since.

Since these events in 289-288 BC Greek Sicily had fallen into chaos and terrible bloodshed, as its many cities and populous countryside had been preyed upon by rival tyrants, brigands and unemployed mercenaries. In Syracuse the strategos Hiketas soon installed himself as tyrant, overthrowing the people: Phintias became tyrant of Akragas; Tyndarion in Tauromenium; Heracleides in Leontini; and others in lesser cities. A struggle for primacy developed between Phintias and Hiketas, and Hiketas was victorious when they met in battle near the Hyblaeus in 281 BC. Hiketas then grew so confident of his strength that in 280 BC he attacked the Carthaginians.

It is in this weakened condition that the Greek-Siciliot tyrants of Sicily have resolved to make peace with one another, and make common cause against Carthage, by placing themselves and their mercenary followers at the disposal of King Pyrrhos of Epiros.

King Pyrrhos agreed to be the champion of the Siciliot tyrants. Lanassa, the wife of Pyrrhos, was a daughter of the dead Syracusan tyrant Agathocles. Lanassa had borne Pyrrhos a son, Alexander, so Pyrros conceived the plan of assisting the tyrants of Sicily as a means of installing his son Alexander – the heir of Agathocles – as “King of Sicily”.

In order to secure his alliance with the Greek-Siciliot city of Syracuse, King Pyrrhos wed his daughter Nereis to Gelo, the son and heir of Hiero son of Hierocles. Hiero was a popular and ambitious aristocratic figure at Syracuse, and with the backing of King Pyrrhos, Hiero was installed as the strategos of Syracuse.

Hellenic Unit Preview

As we have seen, at our campaign's start, King Pyrrhos of Epiros plays an important role in the politics of southern Italy. He is not only threatening Rome's sphere of influence but maybe its very survival! While Pyrrhos undoubtedly made use of local troops he did, of course, draw strongly on his Greek roots for manpower. So let's look at some of these Hellenic soldiers and the new units that will represent them in FOE.

Epirote Pezhetairoi (Pikemen - "Foot Companions")

The Pezhetairoi, or Foot Companions, were the formidable line infantry of Epiros, and were modelled on the pikemen of Phillip II and Alexander the Great. The phalanx of Pezhetairoi formed the core of Epirote armies, arrayed in a deep phalanx formation bristling with pikes.

The phalangite was the Macedonian answer to the Greek hoplite, and remained the mainstay of the Hellenic armies for generations. The Graeco-Macedonian phalangite was the soldier of the “Macedonian phalanx”, an infantry formation developed by King Phillip II of Macedonia, and then deployed by his son Alexander the Great to conquer Greece and the Persian Empire. Known as Pezhetairoi, or Foot Companions, to the Macedonian dynasts, the phalangites were also called Pezoi, or “Foot Soldiers”, by the powers of the Hellenistic Period.

Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes, where he studied under the renowned generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas, who were experimenting with deep lines and slanting battlefronts. These reforms greatly influenced Phillip II in his later design of the “Macedonian phalanx”.

An evolution of the traditional hoplite phalanx of the Classical Period, the Macedonian phalanx transformed warfare. The Macedonian phalanx was manned by phalangites armed with a long pike (sarissa), some 18-24 feet long, enabling them to outreach the traditional Greek hoplites and stave off enemy cavalry. The phalangite wore lighter armour, enabling longer endurance and forced marches. In order to wield the sarissa with two hands, the phalangite carried a smaller “Macedonian shield” rather than the larger, heavier apsis or hoplon of the traditional hoplites.

The "Macedonian phalanx" was a slower moving, less flexible formation than the classical hoplite phalanx, relying on a slow inexorable advance rather than the hoplite charge. Phillip II emphasized the importance of training and unit cohesion, enabling them to overwhelm the citizen hoplites of the Greek poleis (city-states). The Macedonian phalanx remained dominant on the battlefields of the Hellenistic Period until they were finally displaced by the Roman Legion.

The phalangites were well drilled so as to enable them to execute complex maneuvers on the battlefield. They fought packed in a close rectangular formation, the basic unit of which was a file of sixteen men, the dekas; sixteen dekades formed a syntagma of 256 men; these, in turn, were organized into brigades – taxeis – comprised of six syntagma for a total of some 1,500 men.

Each phalangite carries as his primary weapon the trademark of the Macedonian phalanx – the sarissa. The sarissa was a double-pointed pike which by the time of the Successors had grown from its original 18 feet to up to 24 feet by 300 BC. The sarissa was so large and heavy that it was wielded with two hands, and so the phalangite carried a small, less concave bronze shield only 2 feet in diameter. This small shield (pelte) lacked a rim, and had an elbow sling, and was suspended over the shoulder with a baldric. At close range the sarissa was of little use, but an intact phalanx was a formidable force, keeping its enemies at bay and capable of an irresistible advance.

The extreme depth of their new phalanx formation (the syntagma) was the strength of the Macedonian system. The pikes of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time, providing a daunting line of attack bristling with pikes. Once engaged with the enemy, the syntagmae were nearly unstoppable as long as their flanks were protected by cavalry. The Macedonians would advance at a steady, unrelenting rate, mowing down attacking cavalry and infantry alike until the battle was won. For close fighting, the phalangite carried a short double-edged sword, the xiphos.

The “Macedonian system” of warfare developed by Philip II and Alexander the Great relied on the phalanx pinning the enemy army in place, so as to enable the heavy cavalry and hypaspists stationed on the right to make a decisive flanking charge. The Macedonian system became the standard military doctrine of the Successors in the Hellenistic Period: the armies of King Pyrrhos of Epiros relied upon securing the services of Graeco-Macedonian phalangites.

Tarentine Leucaspides (Pikemen - "Whiteshields")

The Leucaspides ("Whiteshields") were the citizen infantry of the Greek-Italiot city-state of Tarentum. They were armed and deployed as pikemen, and fought in the "Macedonian style".

Tarentum (Greek Taras) was founded in 725 BC by Greek colonists from Sparta. With a fine harbour and fertile hinterland, the colony prospered, displacing the native Oinotrians and Messapians, and becoming one of the wealthiest cities of Magna Graecia. Yet the constant attacks of the native Oscan tribes – Lucanians and Bruttians – against the Greek cities of Magna Graecia posed a constant threat. The Italiot Greeks found a protector and master in Tarentum and its leader, the Pythagorean statesmen Archytas. Under his able administration, Tarentine ambition, power and influence reached their height. The democratic political system of Tarentum proved stable and militaristic. Tarentum claimed to be the protector of the Hellenic cities of Italy, and dominated the Greek cities of Italy though the Italiote League.

Soon after Archytas retired, Tarentine power began to wither and Tarentum and the Italiote cities were attacked by the Bruttians and Lucanians in the 350s. In desperation Tarentum appealed to their mother city for help: King Archidamnus III of Sparta campaigned in Italy throughout 343 until his death in 338. From 336-331 King Alexander the Molossian, king of Epiros and brother-in-law to King Phillip II of Macedonia, campaigned against the Bruttians and Lucanians, and finally against the Samnites but Tarentum’s prestige suffered when it failed to protect Kroton in 317, when it was besieged by the Bruttians – it was eventually saved by Syracuse. Again in 304 Tarentum called upon Sparta to assist it against the Lucanians and in 303 the Spartan prince Cleonymus responded to this appeal. The attempt by Agathocles of Syracuse between 298-294 BC to establish his own hegemony in Magna Graecia only left several Greek cities destroyed and the remainder further weakened.

In the 280s the waning power of Tarentum came into conflict with the rising power of Rome and in 285 the Greek-Italiot cities of Thurii, Rhegium, Lokri and Kroton emancipated themselves from Tarentine hegemony and accepted Roman garrisons, turning instead to Rome as their protector against the native Oscan tribes. Roman forces led by Gaius Fabricius Lucinius heavily defeated the barbarian Lucanians in 282, whereby the Romans demonstrated both power and a policy of mild treatment of its “allies”. The hegemony of Tarentum in Magna Graecia was in tatters and, to confront Rome, the city of Tarentum appealed to King Pyrrhos of Epiros for assistance.

The citizen levies of Tarentum are believed to have fought with the sarissa and in the Macedonian phalanx. It is likely that the Italiot-Greeks of Taras adopted the sarissa in the time of King Alexander I of Epiros. Alexander I was a contemporary of Alexander the Great, and, like King Pyrrhos, he too had been invited to Italy by the Greek city of Tarentum (Taras) in 334 BC to assist them against encroaching Oscan peoples. Alexander I secured several victories against the Lucani, Brutii and Samnites, and overran Apulia. However, Tarentum withdrew its support for Alexander I, fearing his personal ambition, and he was slain in Italy in 330 BC by the Lucanians.

Greek Hoplitai

The basis of all military power in Greece once revolved around the hoplite. Operating in the close formation known as the phalanx, they were a powerful unit against both cavalry and infantry.

Greek Hoplites had been a feature of warfare since the 7th Century BC and their weapons remained essentially unchanged. The principal weapon was the thrusting spear (dory), eight to nine feet long, with an ash or cornel wood shaft, iron head, and an iron or bronze buttspike. The centre of the shaft was bound with cord for a secure grip. The spear was usually used in an over arm thrust, but it could also be thrust underarm or even thrown. The secondary weapon of the hoplite was the sword, about 60 cm long.

The “Argive” shield (called aspis or hoplon) was large, 80 cm-1 meter in diameter, convex, made of wood covered with a thin bronze sheet, and was carried with two handles, a bronze porpax in the centre through which the forearm passes, and a cord antilabe at the rim. Hoplites commonly wore greaves, clipped around the legs by their own elasticity, and bronze helmets with cheek-pieces and horsehair crests. Over the Greek woollen tunic, chiton, the hoplite also wore a non-metallic corselet. The heavier and more expensive iron cuirass had increasingly disappeared since the 5th Century BC, as hoplites sought to be swifter and more flexible on the battlefield. In addition, as hoplites were required to equip themselves, cheaper armour grew more popular. The linen corselet – the linothorax – wrapped around the body, tying under the left arm and was split below the waist into strips called pteruges (feathers) for ease of movement.

Hoplites formed up into a formation on a frontage of about 3 feet per man, with each man’s right protected by his neighbour's projecting shield. Hoplites most commonly fought in multiples of four ranks deep, usually eight, though 4, 12 and 16 was also common. In this formation, the hoplites found mutual protection from an accumulation of shields to their front, rear and side. Normally a phalanx of hoplites would advance directly for their enemy, breaking into a run for the last few yards, seeking to close as fast as possible to minimise missile casualties. Ancient Greek battles were a terrible collision of hoplites on the run. What followed this initial collision was the push, or othismos, as ranks to the rear put their bodies into the hollows of their shields and forced those ahead constantly forwards. The hoplite phalanx was vulnerable to flanking attacks, and if the hoplite formation was dispersed or broken then the hoplites are at a great disadvantage. If surrounded or vulnerable to surprise attacks, hoplites would form a hollow square, with baggage, camp-followers and light troops in the centre.

While hoplite arms and armour was burdensome, poorly suited to the summer climate, and uncomfortable, the hoplite panoply accomplished one crucial task: it gave thirty minutes or more of relative protection in which a fighter could close with his enemy and strike savagely with the spear. Hoplite armour was often offensive rather than purely defensive: it was designed to allow a hoplite a chance to carve out a path for those behind him in the phalanx. At times men literally bashed each other with the “defensive” armour of shield, helmet and corselet as those to the rear pushed these human “rams” inexorably onward.

Hoplites were formed from among the citizens of a polis, as a part-time volunteer militia, and so did not receive wages. For this reason, Greek military campaigns were traditionally short and largely confined to the summer. Unlike mercenary hoplites, the citizen phalanx was comprised of men of all ages, from the young to men in their 50s and even 60s. While this strengthened the formation, steadying it with veterans, it also impacted upon the unit’s speed and endurance. The traditional Greek conflict involved hoplite armies moving directly to their target, and seeking a decisive set piece battle. Yet this form of war craft vanished after the Peloponnesian War, being replaced by longer campaigns, requiring larger armies, and with an ever-greater reliance on specialist peltasts, light infantry and mercenaries. Finally, hoplites found themselves outclassed by the spread of the “Macedonian phalanx”, which was deeper and used the longer sarissa rather than the spear. Hoplite equipment became lighter, and hoplites more flexible, but nonetheless traditional hoplite warfare was in inexorable decline during the Hellenistic Period. Despite this, the Macedonian phalanx was relatively slow to spread to mainland Greece, Sicily and Magna Graecia, where hoplite equipment endured until well into the first century BC.

Thureophoroi (Light Infantry)

The Thureophoroi were flexible light infantry, adept as skirmishers and ambushers, but also able to form a tighter formation and serve in the main battle line.

Thureophoroi were rated among the light troops, the "euzoni", and were used as skirmishers, steadily eclipsing the peltasts in the Hellenistic Period. They were used to support skirmishers, to protect the vulnerable flanks of the heavy phalanx formation, and to screen heavier troops in difficult country or on the march. The Thureophoroi were an “intermediate” class of soldier, ranked between the heavy phalanx and the lighter skirmishers. Though capable of fighting hand-to-hand with other light infantry, they could not long stand up to a pike-phalanx.

Thureophoroi carried the oval thureos, from which they derived their name. The thureos was modeled on the standard Keltoi (Galatian) shield, which the Greeks encountered in 280-275 BC, and which became popular thereafter in the third century among the Greeks and Illyrians, called in Greek the "thureos". The shield is painted white, with a spined boss and central handgrip.

Over a simple tunic, the Epirote Thureophoroi wore an iron cuirass, with pteruges ('feathers'), as well as a simple red-brown short cloak. Their other protection was the Macedonian helmet, with a short horsehair crest.

Their principal weapon was the javelin, and they went into battle with a bundle of these. The secondary weapon of the Thureophoroi was the sword.

The Epirote tribes of north-western Greece inhabited a region where classical hoplite warfare had always been limited because of the mountainous terrain, and peltasts were common. The Epirotes adopted the weapons and fighting style of the Thureophoroi with enthusiasm. A further stimulus were the campaigns of King Pyrrhos of Epiros in Italy and Sicily (280-275 BC), where the Epirotes encountered the maniple-style warfare of the native Romans and Oscans. Pyrrhos sought to develop an "articulated" version of the Macedonian Phalanx, whereby the main battle line was comprised of alternate units of phalangites and the more flexible maniples of swordsmen. In this manner, Pyrrhos sought to develop a more flexible battle line against the Romans.

Misthoporoi Kretikoi Toxotai (Cretan Archers)

By far the most famous of Greek archers, the Cretan Archers (Misthoporoi Kretikoi Toxotai) were renowned as specialist mercenaries throughout Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean from at the eighth century BC. The political instability and endemic warfare of Crete meant a steady supply of Cretans available for mercenary service overseas. Cretans were notorious pirates and raiders, and so the Cretan Archers specialised in ruses and ambushes, and were highly valued for their mobility and endurance.

Wearing only a simple white tunic, the chiton, and hardy boots, the Cretan Archer was only lightly armoured, with a bronze helmet, of common Hellenistic type, with a small visor, a metal fin-like crest, volutes, a minimal neck-guard, and cheek peices, together with a small, bronze boss-less round shield, the peltai, strapped to the forearm so as to enable both arms to be free to work the bow.

The small round shields were a distinctive feature of the Cretan Archers (Xen. An. 5.2.28-32). The Cretans used a composite bow, and Cretan archery was different to that which prevailed elsewhere in Greece. Because the Cretan archers drew their bowstring to their ear, in contrast to the Greek archers, who only drew theirs to their chest, they were able to achieve higher trajectories and thus had greater range than their Greek counterparts.

Cretans used the composite bow, a bow of an “eastern” or “Scythian” type, able to fire quickly and powerfully; arrows were made of reed, and the arrowheads were large and heavy, with 4.25 inch bronze heads, often barbed. While Persian archers were able to out-range Cretans, because of their lighter and longer arrows, Cretan archers were nonetheless preferred because they were also able to engage in close combat. Carrying a short sword and small round shield (very unusual for archers), unlike typical Greek archers, the Cretans were able to engage in hand-to-hand combat armed with shield and sword, and thereby outclass enemy archers, slingers and light troops.

Cretan cities encouraged the recruitment of their people as mercenaries overseas, reaching treaties with foreign rulers to facilitate the activities of mercenary recruiters. These archers were recruited not only from among the Doric citizens, the dominant oligarchy on the island, but also from the inferior and servile classes of the Cretan cities also. Indeed, the emancipation and enfranchisement of slaves in Crete, to augment the citizen body, and provide additional recruits for military service, led to the class of person known in the sources as ‘Neocretan’ (Stylianos Spyridakis, ‘Cretans and Neocretans’, The Classical Journal, Vol. 72, No. 4, Apr-May 1977, pp. 299-307).

Cretan archers featured widely as mercenary troops, appearing throughout the central and eastern Mediterranean. Cretans were employed by Alexander the Great and the Successors in Asia, by Rhodes and the poleis in Greece to augment the hoplite infantry armies, and even by the tyrants of Syracuse. In 218 BC Hiero II of Syracuse sent a contingent of 500 Cretan archers to assist Rome in the aftermath of the Roman defeat at Trebia (Polybius, 3.75.7). It was a contingent of 600 Cretan archers that were instrumental in installing a pro-Carthaginian regime in Syracuse in 213 BC (Livy, 24.30). The Achaean League, Aitolian League and Antigonids all employed Cretan archers in their wars in Greece, as did Pergumum and Mithridates V of Pontus.

Psiloi

The Psiloi were recruited from both the poorer, hilly areas of Greece, such as Aetolia & Akarnania, the poorer classes of the more advanced Greek poleis, and sometimes the servants of the Greek hoplites.

These men lacked any specialist training, and were armed only with the simplest missile weapons, such as javelins, rocks and even sticks. They were used in foraging, ambushes, the pursuit of broken enemy, and the plundering and ravaging of enemy lands. On the battlefield, they provided the hoplites with a screen, and often open the battle by attacking other light-armed troops. The Psiloi were unable to combat unbroken infantry or cavalry.

The Psiloi normally wore the everyday dress of Greek farmers and shepherds: a woollen, undyed tunic, and simple boots. Sometimes they wore the shaggy felt hats typical of Greek shepherds. They had neither helmet nor shield and, so, relied entirely upon distance and speed to avoid both enemy missiles and hand-to-hand fighting. The Psiloi carried a long knife as a secondary weapon for when they are forced to engage in close fighting.

The Psiloi harassed enemy skirmishers and the flanks and rear of enemy infantry formations.

Misthoporoi Peltastai

These highly valued skirmishers were better equipped for close combat than psiloi, and so were used in ambushes or to drive off skirmishers. Peltasts could be used to support cavalry against superior enemy horse, to to protect the flanks and rear of the hoplite phalanx.

Peltasts were professional, lightly-equipped, infantry, who were nonetheless better armed that the ordinary skirmishers recruited from among the poorer classes of the Greek poleis, and they emerged as the characteristic mercenary infantry of the fourth century BC Greek armies. While hoplites were highly sought after mercenaries for foreign paymasters overseas, in Greece itself specialist troops like Peltasts were greatly prized by the city-states. Regions such as Achaea and Aitolia, mountainous and poor, were well known for their peltasts, men who were skilled with the javelin from boyhood.

This style of fighting had first emerged in Thrace, from where the first “peltasts” were hired as foreign mercenaries, and hence the “peltast” took his name from the pelte, the characteristic Thracian light shield. Greeks themselves soon adopted this style of combat: the pelte itself had disappeared by the Hellenistic Period, replaced by a stronger round shield, but nonetheless the name endured. The Peltasts were far more effective skirmishers than the Greek Psiloi because they were equipped with a small shield, and so were less vulnerable to defensive barrages of javelins and arrows.

The Athenian Iphikrates won his greatest victory against Sparta, at the battle of Lechaeum (391 BC), defeating the Spartan hoplites with his peltast’s javelin fire. Iphikrates re-equipped peltasts with swords, and improved their performance so that they were able to serve as both skirmishers and engage in hand-to-hand combat as part of the battle-line. While the role of peltasts was increasingly overtaken by thureophoroi in the Hellenistic Period, nonetheless they endured among the poleis of central and southern Greece, and among the traditionalist Greek poleis of Sicily and Magna Graecia.

The peltast wore an Attic helmet and carried a small, round shield with a thin bronze layer. His boots were iphikratatides, light and easy to untie, said to have been introduced by Iphikrates. The principal weapon of the Peltast is the javelin, and he was armed with a bundle of these, which he was able to throw with great force and accuracy, aided by a javelin thong. This thong was fixed onto the javelin with a temporary hitch knot, and formed a loop which was hooked round the index finger; it fell off the javelin when it was thrown, and was retained in the hand. The Peltast was also equipped with a sword as his secondary weapon, for use in close combat.

Hippeis

The Hippeis were well regarded heavy shock cavalry who rode in close order and used the lance (xyston) against both enemy cavalry and infantry.

While Greek city-states in central and southern Greece had been weak in cavalry during the Classical Period (unlike the Thessalians and Boeotians), cavalry played a much more important role in Greek warfare in the Hellenistic Period. Phillip II and Alexander the Great of Macedon had established armoured cavalry as the new force in battle, using large squadrons of heavy cavalry to break the enemy line. So, while Greek infantry wore lighter armour in the Hellenistic Period, cavalry became ever heavier, and greater numbers of cavalry were fielded than previously. The cavalry tradition was particularly strong in Sicily, where conditions were right for the raising of horses in its fertile plains, and cavalry formed an important part of the armed forces of the large and wealthy Greek city-states on the island.

The Hippeus (Greek: ἱππεύς) was the second highest of the four Athenian social classes, made of men who could afford to maintain a war horse in the service of the polis. From this origin, the heavy cavalry of the Greek city-states became known as "Hippeis". The Hippeis were generally recruited from among the social elites of the Greek poleis: from among those citizens wealthy enough to afford their own mounts and expensive armour.

These cavalrymen wore tall boots, originally of a Thracian style, then popular with Greek cavalry. Greaves seem never to have been worn, as they would have interfered too much on the horseman's grip on his mount. The hippeis also wore a simple woollen tunic and a red cloak. The body armour was a bronze muscled cuirass, which distributed the weight equally – important for a man trying to keep in the saddle. The cuirass was made so that the wearer could ride a horse - either by being made with a wide flange at the bottom or by being short and ending at the waist. The helmet was of the Boiotian type, made of bronze, and worn with a trailing crest. This helmet was popular among Greek horsemen as it provided all-round vision as well as good protection.

These were heavy cavalry, who fought in close order, trained to deliver a controlled, shock charge and fight in close combat. The Hippeis were shield-less, and fought with a lance, the xyston (sometimes called a dory), some 7-10 feet long, with a bronze butt-spike. The xyston was able to be used as a thrusting weapon with two hands, yet was also light enough to be manipulated with one hand in close combat, when a hippeis needed to strike to his rear and flanks. When the xyston broke, the rider sometimes used the butt-spike as a weapon. The Greek cavalrymen typically tried to strike the enemy riders in the face and chest with the lance. The Hippeis’ secondary weapon was the sword, called the kopis or machaera, some 20 inches long, heavier towards the point and curved, able to provide a murderous downward cut.

The Greek horses were smaller than other mounts, and were regarded as inferior to the horses of Persia and Libya. Hippeis often rode their horses with only saddlecloths and a simple saddle-pad, controlling the horse with bridle, reins and with their legs.

Prodromoi

The Prodromoi or ‘scouts’ were a generic type of cavalry, commonly found throughout the Greek world: armed as mounted javelin men, they took on the roles of scouts and couriers in the armies of the Greek city-states.

By the first half of the fourth century BC the Prodromoi wore no body armour, wearing a tunic only, together with the popular crestless Boiotian helmet, which replaced the petasos hat from c. 362 BC. The Boiotian helmet resembles a hat with the brim folded down, made in bronze, and was widely used throughout Athens, Boiotia, Thessaly, Macedon and Ptolemaic Egypt. Their principal weapon was the javelin, consistent with the fact that the chief role of these cavalry was the harassment of the enemy when encountered on march, the screening the deployment of one’s own forces, and the pursuit of routing enemy troops: the javelins were some 6 feet long. Xenophon recommended the Persian cornel-wood palta. While they did not carry shields they were also armed with a straight, Greek-style sword for hand-to-hand fighting.

Alexander the Great keenly used Prodromoi in his campaigns, recruiting them widely from among his Macedonian and Greek subjects, as well as from among Thracians and Paeonians: using them on special assignments as elite troops. In his major battles they featured, leading the attack on the right-wing. Indeed, at the battle of the Granicus in 331 BC the Prodromoi were among those troops that initiated the battle. Their function as advance forces in battle was to absorb the momentum of the enemy charge and allow Alexander to counter charge with fresher troops (Arrian, Anab. 1.14.6; CE 42). These forces also drew volleys of javelins upon themselves, and were able to keep numerically superior enemy cavalry occupied.

At the battle of Issus. the Prodromoi were again posted in front of the cavalry of the line and were also important as scouts for Alexander on the eve of Gaugamela (Arrian. Anab. 1.15.1-5; 3.7.7-8.2), as well as the subsequent pursuit of Darius (Arrian. Anab. 3.18.1; 1.21.2). Although Alexander obviously made excellent use of Prodromoi as mounted skirmishers, they are reported as early as 390 BC in Athens. There, in contrast to the Hippeis, the prodromoi were recruited from among the Thetes, the lowest socio-economic class (Xen Cav. Cmdr. 1.25).

FOE - 280 BC

The FOE campaign begins in 280 BC: a year of turmoil and decision: a year in which two major battles occurred in the central Mediterranean. The Battle of Heraclea, which was fought between King Pyrrhos of Epiros and Consul Publius Valerius Laevinus of Rome, and The Battle of the River Terias, a conflict between a Carthaginian army and the forces of the tyrant, Hicetas of Syracuse. Here, to give you a flavour of the times and to set FOE into context, is an account of these two encounters, and their immediate aftermath. Also included are suggested army compositions to enable you to recreate them as custom battles, once FOE has been released.


The Battle of Heraclea, mid-280 BC

Lucania

King Pyrrhos of Epiros had landed in Italy, joined his ally the city of Tarentum, and prepared a field army to challenge the Roman consular army led by Publius Valerius Laevinus that was nearby, at Heraclea. He advanced upon the Roman army at Heraclea with three aims:

(a) to decisively defeat the Romans
(b) to encourage his Samnite and Lucanian allies to join him: the Romans at Heraclea dominated Lucania, and during 282-281 BC had defeated the Lucanians, ravaged their territory, and forced them to accept a "treaty" whereby they had become subordinate allies to Rome.
(b) to expel the Romans from Heraclea, a position that enabled them to directly threaten Tarentum and Pyrrhos' other Greek-Italiot allies, such as Kroton, Thurii and Metapontum.

King Pyrrhos commanded a force that could be said to have been the mightiest field army in the world in 280 BC. It was an all arms force that fought in the style of the 'Macedonian system' (see chart below) - the style perfected by Alexander the Great of Macedonia.

This can be represented on an RTW battlefield as:

• Epiros Character; Hetaroi; Pyrrhos, King of Epiros, "The Eagle"
• Epiros Character; Hypaspists (Elite Hoplites); Leonnatus "The Macedonian"
• Epiros Character; Heteroi; Megacles
• Epiros Character; Hetaroi; Prince Helenos (son of Pyrrhos & Bircenna, the daughter of Audelon, King of Paeonia)
• Epiros Character; Heteroi; Prince Alexander (son of Pyrrhos & Lanassa, the daughter of Agathocles, King of Syracuse)
• 1 Misthophoroi Kretikoi Toxotai (mercenary Cretan Archers)
• 1 Rhodian Slingers (mercenary)
• 2 Misthrophoroi Peltastai - heavy skirmishers (mercenary)
• 1 Thessalian Cavalry
• 1 Prodromoi
• 4 Epirote Pikemen
• 2 Hoplitai (Spearmen)
• 1 Asian Elephants

The consular army of Publius Valerius Laevinus was also strong: equal in strength to the Epirote army, and veteran - these troops had only just triumphed in 282-281 BC against the Etruscans and Cisalpine Gauls. In RTW terms they can be represented by:

• Roman Character; Equites; Publius Valerius Laevinus
• 1 Roman Equites (Heavy Cavalry)
• 1 Equites Campaniae (Heavy Cavalry)
• 1 Etrusci Equites (Heavy Cavalry)
• 1 Osci Equites (Light Cavalry)
• 3 Hastati (Light Infantry)
• 3 Principes (Heavy Infantry)
• 2 Triarii (Spearmen)
• 1 Velites (Skirmishers)
• 1 Funditores (Slingers)
• 1 Etruscan Hoplite (Spearmen)
• 1 Hoplomachi Campaniae (Spearmen)
• 1 Oscan Javelinmen (Skirmisher)
• 2 Oscan Armoured Infantry (Light Infantry)

The Battle

King Pyrrhos marched to Heraclea and made his camp. This battle was be the first time the Roman legion faced the Macedonian-style phalanx of pikes (sarissa). Pyrrhos was confident in his phalanx, superior cavalry and war elephants, and he deployed his forces behind the river Siris: his light troops covering the stream, while his main phalanx & elephants kept some distance back from the river.

Initial deployment

The Romans were unusually aggressive and spirited, as they believed that they would deal with Pyrrhos’s army in the same manner that they had previously defeated their Etruscan, Gallic and Tarentine enemies. Laevinius ordered out the legions and moved swifty to cross the river to attack Pyrrhos' position. The Roman infantry advanced on the Epirote light troops, while the Roman cavalry forded the river on the flanks, outflanked the Epirote light troops and attacked them. The Epirote pickets along the stream fell back as their flanks were turned.

Roman advance

The Roman cavalry attempted to pursue the retreating Epirote light troops, and Pyrrhos launched a counterstrike; he charged the Roman cavalry with his own Heteroi heavy cavalry, holding his Thessalian cavalry in reserve. The Heteroi & Roman horse fought a savagely, and Pyrrhos’ outnumbered horsemen barely held their own. Soon, almost all of Pyrrhos’ horsemen were thrown into this cavalry battle and he joined the melee, inspiring his troops and overawing his opponents. It was at this time that an Italian cavalry officer charged Pyrrhos and unhorsed him. Luckily, he was saved by his retainers and he decided to take off his conspicuous armor and gave it to his Commander Megacles. Megacles rejoined the fight and the Epirote cavalry held.

Cavalry counter-strike

Pyrrhos, unhorsed and bruised, made his way back to the main Epirote battle line.

By this time the Roman legions had formed into their standard 'triple line' and launched a full-scale attack on the Epirote battle line, comprising the Epirote Pikemen and supporting hoplites and light troops, and a severe struggle ensued between them. A series of clashes occurred with charges and counter-charges delivered by the rival Epirote & Roman infantry. The Romans were frustrated because they couldn’t break through the wall of pikes, whereas the Epirotes and Macedonians were frustrated because every time they defeated a maniple they couldn’t pursue, as another maniple would threaten to outflank them if they opened a gap in their line. These were seasoned 'phalangites' (pikemen) and they were savvy enough to know that they could not offer the Roman maniples an opportunity to penetrate their line. Seven times the phalangites clashed with the maniples as they charged, pulled back and were replaced by reserve maniples.

Phalanx charges the main Roman force

Luckily for Pyrrhos, the river crossing apparently had funnelled the Roman advance and somehow its Allied Legions were unable to deploy on a wide enough front to flank the Epirote battleline. Neither the Tarentines nor the Allied Legions are mentioned and they may have cancelled each other out.

As a stalemate spread across the battleline, a Roman cavalry officer killed Megacles and carried Pyrrhus’ goat horned helmet and cloak to Laevinius shouting to all that Pyrrhos himself was dead! The Romans, at their lowest ebb, were rejuvenated, and the Epirotes wavered and fell back. Pyrrhus, in turn, took off his helmet and rode in front of his lines to show his troops the ruse. This dramatic display saved his army and they stood their ground once again.

Epirote elephants defeat Roman cavalry

During this confusion, Laevinius threw in his reserve of Roman cavalry against the phalanx’s exposed flank. Pyrrhus saw this as the decisive moment and gathered his war elephants. The Romans were charged by the elephants and their horses would not stand against the “Lucanian Oxen”, and they fled. The Epirote elephants and cavalry then attacked the Roman infantry from the flanks and rear, the elephants particularly spreading panic and terror before them. The Roman legions were routed, and Pyrrhos launched a vigorous pursuit with his Thessalian cavalry.

Roman cavalry flee: their infantry, attacked on flanks, rout

The Roman army would have been annihilated, given that it had its back to the stream, but the first Hastate of the Fourth Legion, Gaius Minucius, wounded Pyrrhos’ leading war elephant, which then bolted back through the Epirote phalanx. The phalanx halted, and the Romans melted away in confusion and rout.

Aftermath of the Battle

The battle was closely fought: the Romans losing 7,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and another 2,000 taken prisoner. The consul withdrew across Apulia, back towards Rome, with around 20,000 men intact. Pyrrhos' army had also suffered heavily: 4,000 dead, including his officer Megacles and many of his irreplaceable Epirote heteroi and pikemen.

Heraclea was decisive, in that the defeat of the Romans meant that King Pyrrhos was now joined by his native Lucanian and Samnite allies. The Roman garrison at Rhegium, a Campanian legion commanded by Decius, revolted from Rome after Heraclea, and took control of the city for themselves, effectively going renegade, and joining the Mamertini of Messana as regional pirates and brigands. Rome would not recapture Rhegium and punish the deserters/renegades there until c. 271 BC.

The demoralized Roman army retired hastily to Apulia and entrenched behind the river Aufidus. Later, after Pyrrhos had paused to train his Tarentine forces better, he advanced into Latium. The Latin cities gave him no support, and three new consular armies attempted to cut him off from the South. Pyrrhos turned back from Rome and began a build up of forces for the next campaign season in 279 BC.

The Battle of the River Terias, mid-280 BC

Under the mighty tyrant Agathocles, Syracuse was a great power in the central Mediterranean. Agathocles established a "kingdom" from Syracuse that included eastern and central Sicily: his influence extended to the straits of Messana and Rhegium. He vied with Tarentum for the leadership of the Greek-Italiot cities (poleis) of southern Italy. He fought a long war with Carthage, during which he suffered defeat in Sicily at the battle of Himera (311 BC): besieged at Syracuse, Agathocles then famously launched an invasion of Libya between 310-307 BC in alliance with Ophellas of Kyrenaike. Agathocles finally made peace with Carthage in 306 BC, which divided Sicily between Carthage and Agathocles' "kingdom of Sicily" at the Halycus River.

Being one of the great Hellenistic kings of his time, Agathocles married into the great Successor families. Agathocles married Theoxena, stepdaughter of Ptolemy I of Egypt, and his daughter Lanassa married King Pyrrhos of Epiros. In 289 BC Agathocles died aged 72, poisoned, and his 'kingdom' immediately collapsed, ushering in a period of strife and destruction.

- Agathocles and his son and heir (also named Agathocles) were murdered by Menon the Segestan, Agathocles' body slave, and the general Archagathus (a grandson of Agathocles, his father having been killed in Libya years earlier); Archagathus was furious that he would not inherit the kingdom, and so planned a coup d'etat.

- Menon and Archagathus were driven from Syracuse, where an oligarchy emerged to seize power and establish a constitution: Menon murdered Archagathus, and took control of the former King's army himself; Menon now planned to make himself tyrant of Syracuse.

- Around 289-288 BC the citizens of Syracuse selected Hicetas to serve as their general (strategoi) to conduct the war against Menon.

In around 287 BC Carthage intervened in the strife engulfing eastern Sicily, and supported Menon the Segestan with Punic troops. Soon Carthage and Syracuse reached a peace, however, whereby Syracuse ended the war, "restored the exiles" (i.e. readmitted Menon and his adherents to the city), and "were compelled to give four hundred hostages to the Phoenicians."

At this point, "because the mercenaries were not allowed to vote in the elections", Syracuse was torn by fresh civil strife, as Agathocles' body of Campanian/Oscan mercenaries fought with the Syracusan citizen body. The mercenaries were expelled from Syracuse, and ordered to leave Sicily. When these mercenaries reached the straits of Messana, they "were welcomed by the people of Messana as friends and allies. But when they had been hospitably received by the citizens into their own homes, they slew their hosts in the night, married the wives of the men they had so wronged, and took possession of the city" (Diod. 21.18.1-3). In this way, Agathocles' former mercenaries became the dreaded 'Mamertini' of Messana, and became the plague of pirates/brigands throughout north-eastern Sicily.

After the death of Agathocles and anarchy of 289 BC, eastern Sicily was dominated by tyrants; the general Hicetas made himself tyrant of Syracuse, Phintias tyrant of Akragas/Agrigentum, Tyndarion in Tauromenium, "and others in lesser cities". These tyrants relied on a mix of Greek and barbarian mercenaries to retain their hold over the Greek-Siciliot poleis of eastern Sicily.

Finally, the two most powerful tyrants, Hicetas and Phintias, fought a great battle at Hybleaus (upper Hyrminius River, in the region of Hybla Heraea) in around 281 BC. Hicetas was successful and conquered Akragas, and he then aimed to re-establish the power and extent of the former kingdom of Agathocles under his own leadership.

In 280 BC Hicetas mustered the forces of Syracuse and his own mercenary followers, and launched an invasion of Punic western Sicily (i.e. the two regions of Sicilia Poeni/Lilybaeum & Sicilia Epikrateia/Panormus). Hicetas hoped that he could win a great victory, overrun Punic Sicily, and thereby consolidate his own position as the supreme Greek-Siciliot tyrant of Sicily.
In contrast to Hereaclea, which pits the Macedonian phalanx system against the Roman legion, the battle of Terias is a contest of two 'classical', 4th century-style armies. The Carthaginian army is more closely related to that it fielded against Agathocles at the battle of Tunis (310 BC)than to those it would later field in the Punic Wars.

The tyrant Hicetas commands an army that is typical for Greek-Siciliot tyrannoi, being a mix of Greek and 'barbarian' mercenaries, and the citizen-army of Syracuse. This can be represented on the RTW battlefield by:

• Hetaroi - Hicetas, Tyrant of Syracuse
• 1 Misthophoroi Kretikoi Toxotai (mercenary Cretan Archers)
• 4 Misthrophoroi Hoplitai (mercenary Hoplite)
• 2 Misthrophoroi Peltastai (mercenary Heavy Skirmishers)
• 1 Oscan Armoured Infantry (mercenary Light Infantry)
• 1 Keltoi Heavy Mercenaries (mercenary Swordsmen)
• 1 Keltoi Mercenaries (mercenary Swordsmen)
• 4 Hoplitai (Spearmen)
• 2 Prodromoi (Cavalry Skirmishers)
• Hippeis (Heavy Cavalry)
• 2 Psiloi (Skirmishers)

The Carthaginian army in western Sicily was an 'old fashioned' force, and reflected the obsolete 4th century warcraft of Carthage: the reliance of Libyan war chariots and Greek mercenary hoplites is typical of Carthage at this time. Carthage was strong in skirmishers and light troops, but weak in line infantry/spearmen. It would only be in the 270s, after being defeated by Pyrrhos, that Carthage would modernise its forces, and replace the obsolete war chariots with elephants. This army can be represented by:

• Carthaginian Character; Sacred Band Cavalry; Mago
• Carthaginian Character; Hoplitai; Menon the Segestan
• 3 Libyan War Chariots (Heavy Cavalry)
• 2 Libyan Hoplites (Spearmen)
• 2 Misthrophoroi Hoplitai (mercenary Hoplite)
• 2 Libyan Javelinmen (Skirmishers)
• 1 Nuragic Goatskin Warrior (Swordsmen)
• 1 Balearic Slingers (mercenary Missile)
• 2 Caetrati Falcata (Light Infantry)
• 1 Keltoi Heavy Mercenaries (Swordsmen)
• 1 Keltoi Mercenaries (Swordsmen)
• 1 Ligurian Warrior (mercenary Skirmisher/Swordsmen)
• 1 Ligurian Swordsmen (mercenary Swordsmen)
• 1 Numidian Cavalry (Missile Cavalry)

The Battle

The Battle of Terias was fought near Lilybaeum, in the region of Sicilia Poeni. The Carthaginians, standing on the defensive, sought an open plain, where they could make best use of their Libyan Chariots. They aimed to defeat Hicetas' invasion of western Sicily in a single decisive engagement. Hicetas, confident in his strength in hoplites, accepted battle. Diodorus only tells us that Hicetas " joined battle with the Carthaginians, but was defeated and lost many men near the river Terias."

For RTRVII-FOE the challenge of this battle would be for the Carthaginian player to hold his infantry battle line against the enemy, which is particularly strong in hoplite infantry, long enough to enable the strong force of Libyan Chariots (together with the Nuragic 'Goatskin' Warriors operating as 'chariot runners') to turn Hicetas' flank(s). Of course, if the Carthaginian player squanders his strong chariot force, his army will likely find itself outclassed by the Greek-Siciliot army of the tyrant Hicetas.

Aftermath of the Battle

The defeat of Hicetas was decisive. Defeated, Hicetas withdrew to Syracuse, but his authority was wrecked. Hicetas was toppled as tyrant of Syracuse, and a new tyrant named Thoenon the son of Mameus emerged there. The tyrant Sostratus now emerged at Akragas. Sostratus and Thoenon soon quarreled, and Sostratus overran Syracuse while Thoenon withdrew to "the island" of Ortygia. Carthage, delighted at the fall of Hicetas and factional anarchy raging in eastern Sicily, resolved to launch an invasion of Syracuse. Carthage allied herself with the Mamertines of Messana.

With a force of 100 quinqueremes and a large army, Carthage besieged Syracuse by land and sea in 278 BC. Panicked, the tyrants of Sicily forgot their many quarrels, and united in appealing to King Pyrrhos of Epiros (then in southern Italy) to come to their aid. In 278 BC Pyrrhos landed in Sicily and raised the siege of Syracuse. Pyrrhos' army was joined by the Siciliot tyrannoi and their mercenary armies;

- Sostratus, tyrant of Akragas "and many other cities", with "more than ten thousand men"
- Thoenon of Syracuse; commanded "missiles, engines of war, and such equipment as was in the city; the ships that he took over in Syracuse were: 120 decked vessels, twenty without decks, and the royal "niner" (enneres)"
- Tyndarion, "dynast of Tauromenia": Pyrrhos "obtained soldiers from him"
- Heracleides, tyrant of Leontini, agreed to hand over to Pyrrhos "the city and its forts, together with four thousand infantry and five hundred cavalry"
- "Many other embassies also came to Syracuse, offering to hand over their cities and saying they would cooperate with Pyrrhos. he received them all courteously, and then sent them back to their several countries, hoping now to even win Libya"

In this manner did Pyrrhos make himself "King of Sicily", and at the head of his own army (strengthened by the contingents of the Siciliot tyrannoi) he defeated the Carthaginians in 278-277, until only Lilybaeum and the Mamertines of Messana still resisted him.

King Pyrrhos besieged Lilybaeum in 276 BC, but was heavily defeated there. "But the Carthaginians were able to defend themselves because of the number of their fighters and the abundance of their equipment. For the Carthaginians had collected so great a number of catapults, both dart-shooters and stone-throwers, that there was no room on the walls for all the equipment." The Siciliot tyrannoi began to revolt against Pyrrhos' authority, and by 275 BC he had abandoned Sicily and returned to Italy.

Battle Images

Here again we have some sample images of our FOE units in action. The images are taken from a custom battle, which was set up as near as possible to depict the battle of Heraclea described above. The legions of Rome, drawn up on an expansive plain, against the phalanxes of Epirus. It was an epic battle, with lots of derring-do on both sides, and one of the highlights, for me, was when some Epirotean Hippeis slammed into the rear of an Oscan (allies of Rome) infantry unit - the bodies flew everywhere! Thanks to the marvels of modern technology, I'm glad that I was able to capture that moment of impact and include an image of it below.

Click on the images to see them in all their original 1920x1200 glory.

Wall of death


Stopping the cavalry



"Take back what you said about my mother!"



Prodromoi



Hippeis on the move



The Socii get hit from behind



Battlefield panorama



Hoplitai



Flaming death



Peltastai advancing

METalwork!

Considering the focus of this preview, I couldn't resist including this nugget. It's a collage of photos that our historian, Hamilcar Barca, took on a visit to the Metropolitan Museum, New York, in June of this year. They are a superb example of a suit of horse-armour and armour from a Greek Italiot cavalryman from Magna Graecia (c. 330 BC) and is typical of heavy cavalry in southern Italy during the FOE time period.

Click on image to enlarge

Afterword

Since the last preview the team has been working hard to get FOE ready for beta testing and balancing, and we are nearly there. There are a couple of units that still need to be finalised and good progress is being made on the new governmental systems for FOE's major factions, which we hope will really add some new dimensions to both gameplay and realism. In fact our testers are already getting their teeth into the Alpha, which will give us a flying start when we begin ironing out the kinks in the Beta. Regarding the Beta, this stage is one we would like to reach in the near future.

At present, we do have a contingency plan to recycle a couple of "unique" units from RTR 6 into the mix. We may do this because of the time and effort it would take our hard working and overloaded Maced0n to develop these "one-offs". The team doesn't think that the delay that would be imposed in getting FOE to you, because of a couple of units, can be justified, especially considering how patient you have all been so far - and the original units are pretty good anyway! That being said, the number of new units far outweighs those which will be used from RTR 6 in FOE.

However, there may be a solution if you want spanky new models throughout. If there are any modellers/skinners out there who think they could help, and would like to lend us their assistance in getting these units ready for FOE's big launch, please get in touch with me, via PM, to discuss what it is we are looking for.

That's it for this preview folks, we hope you've found it interesting. The focus of the next preview hasn't been decided yet but we're thinking that we may take a look at those fellows trying to paint the map white, that is, Carthage but - as always - I'm open to suggestions.