[History] Pyrrhus of Epirus - His Expedition to Italy and the Battle of Heraclea

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Title: Pyrrhus of Epirus - His Expedition to Italy and the Battle of Heraclea
Author: Manuel I Komnenos

Pyrrhus of Epirus

When Rome came into conflict with the Greeks of South Italy, the citizens of Taras, knew that by facing the enemy with their own forces only didn't stand a chance. So, they appealed for help to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who answered their call and landed in South Italy with a strong expeditionary force. In the summer of 280 BC, near the city of Heraclea, the Epirote phalanx met with the Roman Legions for the first time, marking this as the first conflict between the Hellenistic world and Rome. Let us shed light in a not so well known conflict and see the whole background behind this War...

The City of Taras and the First Contact with the Roman Republic

At the end of the 8th century B.C., settlers from Sparta established the city of Taras, in Southern Italy. Having a great natural harbor and plenty of grassland, Taras grew by time in one of the richest and most powerful Greek cities of South Italy. As expected, the antagonism and disputes of the Tarentines with the various Italic tribes as well as with the Greeks of the neighboring colonies was frequent. In the second half of the 4th century BC, Taras started declining. At the same time, it was involved in lengthy wars against the Lucani whom it was unable to defeat by using just its own troops. It was therefore inviting reinforcements from Sparta or other areas. Its position was further weakened by the emerging Roman Republic. While expanding their territory towards South Italy, they inevitably came in conflict with the Greeks of the area. At first, Taras tried to avoid an armed conflict and in 303 BC, signed a pact with Rome, according to which the Roman ships wouldn't sail further than the Cape of Lakinia. In this way, a fragile balance was created, which was meant to be reversed 20 years later. In 282 BC, the Romans captured Thurii, an Athenian colony in the southwest of Taras. In the spring of the same year, a Roman squadron of ten ships violated the Pact of 303 BC, sailed north of the Cape of Lakinia and approached Taras. The Tarentine citizens, encouraged by the Republicans, attacked the squadron, sunk four of its ships including the flagship and captured a fifth one along with its whole crew, while the rest of the five ships, fled. However they didn't stop in this success. They marched against Thurii, captured it and sacked it. The Roman garrison which was stationed there was expelled along with the aristocrats of the city who had a pro-Roman stance.

The Romans send an embassy to Taras - The Tarentines appeal to Pyrrhus for aid

Before the end of the winter of 282 BC, the Romans sent an embassy to Taras with moderate demands, because their relations with the various Italian nations were shaky and they didn't desire to open a new front against the Greeks. The Romans were asking for the release of the prisoners of war, the return of the exiles from Thurii and their compensation, for their fortunes have come in the hands of their political enemies and finally the punishment of those who had harmed them. However, when the Roman envoys arrived in the Agora of Taras, the crowd did not allow them to express their message freely and treated them offensively. The ambassadors returned back to their city furious and empty-handed, informing their fellows of their sad impressions. After these dramatic developments, any attempt to try and resolve this dispute peacefully was deemed vain and the Senate voted for War against the Greek colony. Lucius Aemilius Barbula was appointed as general. The news for the eruption of war divided the citizens of Taras. The aristocrats were in favor of immediate peace while the lower classes were in favor of War against Rome. However, even the supporters of war, who in the end prevailed, were aware of the military possibilities of the city and knew that without the support of strong allies, the Tarantine army would perish by the Roman legions. So, they decided to send an embassy which would ask for help from a great Hellenic King who had the reputation of being the greatest general of his time, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, of the Mollosoi dynasty. The distance between South Italy and Epirus was small and the two areas were separated by the short straits of Taras, therefore, a transfer of forces would be easy.

Negotiations between Pyrrhus and the Tarentines

Pyrrhus had expanded the Kingdom of Epirus which now covered the area from Epidamnus to the Corinthian Gulf, and in 288 BC he had succeeded in becoming King of Macedonia, along with Lysimachus. In 284 BC, Lysimachus ousted him from the throne of Macedon and he remained the sole ruler of the region. But his restless nature and ambition was urging him in quest for new war adventures. Therefore, the appeal of Taras for aid was a very good opportunity to leave inactivity and expand his dominance, towards the West. Despite that, the Tarentine envoys had to visit the Court of Pyrrhus two times in order to convince him that he had a lot to gain from an expedition against the Romans. In the second visit to the Epirote Court, the Tarentine ambassadors were accompanied by representatives of the Greek allies of Taras, Heraclea, Metapontion, and Thurii as well as from the “barbarian” nations of the Samnites and the Lucani. In this way, the impression given was that in case the Epirote King accepted the proposal of the envoys from Italy, he would take the lead of an Anti-Roman coalition, in which Greeks and Italians would unite against a common enemy. However, a war against such a powerful enemy, like Rome, would be an extremely hard operation to be based in random assertions. Therefore, the Tarentines had to promise certain things to Pyrrhus. Firstly, they agreed to provide him the ships of their powerful navy which would be important for the transfer of the Epirote army to Italy.. In addition to that, they would the salaries and the camps of the men of the Greek King and they would hand hostages over to him. The most important thing though was that it was agreed to grant Pyrrhus full control which would make him the sole ruler of Taras. According to Plutarch, the envoys from italy assured him that the united forces of the Anti-Roman coalition amounted to 350.000 infantry and 20.000 cavalry. These numbers are exaggerated and surely inaccurate but indicate that the Tarentines and their allies intended to place a numerous army under the command of Pyrrhus as soon as he landed in Italian soil.

The Answer of the Hellenistic Kings - Pyrrhus decides to intervene

Aside from the enemies of Rome, there were others who wished for the departure of the Mollosian King to the West. The Greek Kings of the East, who were in constant antagonism with each other, considered Pyrrhus a very capable opponent in the military and diplomatic fields and had a lot of reasons to desire his removal from their sphere of influence. Therefore, they decided to make his expedition to Italy as easy as possible. The official justification for the help provided was the united effort of the Greek Kings of the East for the salvation of their compatriots in the West. Antiochus I of the Seleucids offered Pyrrhus important economic assistance, while Antigonus Gonatas, provided him with a contingent of his fleet, so that the transfer of the Epirote army in Italy should not entirely be dependent on the Tarentine fleet. Ptolemy Ceraunos who in the meantime had been raised to the throne of Macedon, granted the Mollosian King contingents of his infantry and cavalry, as well as 20 war-elephants, which would prove crucial for the expedition. Finally, Pyrrhus accepted the proposals of the Tarentines, after having received the guarantees that he asked for and aid from the other Hellenistic Kings. Moreover, the oracles of Delphi and Dodona had given him prophesies that he perceived as being favorable. He was so determined to campaign against the Romans that not even the objections of Cineus, his trusted advisor, were able to dissuade him. The Epirote King used to say that he had conquered more cities with the words of Cineus than with his own arms, a fact which shows how much he admired the rhetoric abilities and the opinion of this man. Nevertheless, concerning the expedition to Italy, the two men had diametrically opposed views.

The Romans score victories against the Tarentines

The alliance of the Tarentines with Greeks and “barbarians” of South Italy, as well as their contact with King Pyrrhus became known to General Lucius Aemilius Varvoula, who decided to act immediately. In 281 BC, the latter invaded the Tarentine territory with his legions and achieved quick and easy victories against the forces which were sent to deal with him. Subsequently, he conquered a few forts and raided the countryside. Nevertheless, the Roman consul, showed towards the prisoners of war and set free the rich ones without asking for money. Under the pressure due to the military failures, the democratic government which was favoring war against Rome was overthrown. The pro-Roman aristocrats took full control and started immediate negotiations with the enemy. Pyrrhus had to act against the moves of the Tarentine aristocrats if he wanted to maintain the hostilities between the Greeks and the Romans. So, in the Spring of 281 BC, he sent Cineus, his trusted advisor, to Taras, accompanied by a military contingent. Shortly afterwards, 3.000 Epirotes arrived and seized the Tarentine Acropolis and its walls. The democratic array was restored in power and the negotiations were broken. The Roman Legions abandoned the Tarentine territory and retreated towards Metapontion. From there, they continued their march towards Venusia, where they intended to stay for the winter. The hostilities had ceased but only temporarily. Rome would not accept the presence of the Epirots in her sphere of influence.

Pyrrhus arrives in Italy

After having completed the preparations for the expedition, Pyrrhus left for Italy in the end of the 280 BC. He was accompanied by his two younger sons, Elenus and Alexander, while he left his firstborn, 15th years old son Ptolemy as regent in Epirus. The expeditionary force amounted for 20.000 infantry, 3.000 cavalry, 2.000 archers, 500 sphendonitai and 20 war-elephants. A lot of ships had been gathered for their transportation and the Romans didn’t dare to harass them while they were crossing the Ionian Sea. During that period, the Roman Navy, possessing only two squadrons of 20 ships each did not constitute a serious danger for the Greeks and the other maritime nations of the Mediterranean Sea. In the middle of its route, Pyrrhus’ navy was scattered due to a fierce storm and this hindered and delayed the concentration of the Epirote units in Taras. Pyrrhus’ flagship was endangered due to the storm and he had to land on the coast of Messapia, many kilometers east from his original destination. Pyrrhus was greeted by Cineus and arrived in Taras by land. There, he was received with enthusiasm and the citizens cut coins to honor him. However, the situation in the city was disappointing. The huge army of 350.000 infantry and 20.000 cavalry which the envoys from Italy had promised was non-existent. The Tarentines had made no war preparations. They had also stayed passive and unorganized, without having come in terms with the rest of the enemies of Rome for the conduct of joint operations.

Pyrrhus imposes harsh measures on the Tarentines

Pyrrhus did not intend to tolerate this unacceptable and dangerous for his interests situation. So, he proceeded with a series of drastic measures, ignoring the fact that he'd come in quarrel with the Tarentines. He conscripted all the available males of the city, without any exceptions. This decision changed completely the lives of the citizens, making it clear to them that if they wanted to maintain their freedom, they would have to risk it all. Whoever attempted to avoid mandatory conscription was punished with death penalty. The conscripts were receiving Macedonian equipment and were trained by experienced officers of the Epirote Army. Pyrrhus did not form a distinct unit of Tarentine hoplites but instead allocated them between his own soldiers, in order to avoid possible attempts of rebellion by the discontent conscripts. The young men of the rich city were forced to abandon the jewelry and the luxurious clothing and to wear breastplates and helmets. However, the Epirote King did not stop at these military measures. He took decisions concerning the aspects of the daily life of the Tarentine citizens. The gymnasiums, the parks and the theater were closed. The festivals, feasts and dances were abolished and the Tarentine Assembly was dissolved. The city had eventually become a military camp and dissatisfaction was obvious among the citizens of Taras. Some of them abandoned Taras, refusing to adapt in the new, difficult living conditions. For the prevention of a wider immigration wave, Pyrrhus placed garrisons of Epirote soldiers in every gate of the city. The above measures were harsh but necessary for the creation of a well-trained army. In this way, Pyrrhus’ allies were in some way forced to make the promises which they had given through their envoys come true. The aristocrats tried to exploit the discontent which had prevailed in Taras due to the above harsh measures. The rude behavior of some Epirote soldiers towards the families whom the homes were used as accommodation, were furthering promoting quarrels among the allies. The situation was appropriate for rebellions and violent reactions motivated by the pro-Roman aristocracy. In order to get rid of the danger of an inner front in Taras, Pyrrhus exiled many friends of the Romans in Epirus and executed some of them.

A typical Hellenistic Army. This is how the Epirote Army would have looked like.

The Romans answer

Information about the arrival of the Epirote King in Italy and his war preparations alarmed the Romans, who moved without delay, proceeding with the recruitment of men and the gathering of money. In order to ensure the loyalty of their allies, they sent additional Roman guards to their cities and ordered the arrest of opposition members. Publius Valerius Laevinus had been appointed as the general of the Legions which would march against Taras. His objective was to force the Epirotes and Tarentines to fight before they had time to receive reinforcements from the forces of their allies, to which the Bruttii (Βρέττιοι) and Messapii (Μεσσάπιοι) had already been added. He would also try to sever the ties of Taras with the Leucani (Λευκανοί), the Samnites (Σαυνίτες) and the Bruttii (Βρέττιοι). Laevinus went to Venusia in order to replace Consul Lecius Aemilius Varvoula, who had finished his term as Consul and immediately invaded Lucania, in head of 4 Legions. Then, marching in the right bank of river Sirius, came close to Heraclea. This city was a rich Tarentine colony and had been established in the 5th century B.C.

Pyrrhus marches against the Romans

When Pyrrhus learned that the Romans were threatening Heraclea, he decided to attack without waiting for the reinforcements of his allies. He was determined to face the enemy only with the Epirotes and the Tarentines who had time to receive proper training. According to several sources, the Epirote King tried to negotiate with Laevinus, suggesting himself as an arbitrator for the solution of the Roman-Tarentine disputes. The Consul’s answer was negative: “The Romans do not elect Pyrrhus as and do not fear him as an enemy”. The armed conflict was now inevitable. Without any further delays, Pyrrhus rushed to meet the enemy Legions which were outside of Heraclea. His objective was to get involved in a battle in this particular area, because the plains were favoring the use of his cavalry and elephants. Arriving in river Sirius, he encamped in its left bank, between the cities of Heraclea and Pandosia. The Roman camp was on the opposite bank. When the two adversaries met, it was April of 280 B.C.

The Opposing Forces

The ancient sources don't mention the accurate strength of the roman and epirote armies in Heraclea. However, they provide some other information, according to which, it is possible to estimate the approximate numbers. The Greeks managed to gather no more than 30.000 soldiers, of whom 3.000 were horsemen and 4.500 were archers and slingers. 20 Elephants, provided by Ptolemy Keraunos, had been deployed in the field of battle. The Romans gathered a force of 35.000-40.000 men. Out of these, 4.000 made up the cavalry and 8.000 were light infantry (velites). The heavy infantry of Laevinus was divided in four legions and each of them had 2.000 velites.

The Battle of Heraclea Part I

Before the battle, Pyrros went on horseback to the banks of river Sirios to observe the Roman positions. Watching the moves of the enemy formations, he was impressed by the superb organization of the camp and generally by the order and discipline of the Roman army. According to Plutarch, the Epirote King looked upon Megacles, a friend of his, and said ‘The discipline of these Barbarians is not barbarous; but the result will show us what it amounts to.’. Pyrrhus kept his army in a long distance river Sirius, in the banks of which, he stationed only a small guard. This force which would guard the river crossings, most likely consisted of the archers and slingers. Judging from its small size, we conclude that its objective was not to hold the enemy by itself but to harass him and delay him until reinforcements had time to arrive. The battle started with a Roman attempt to cross river Sirius without success. The Epirote guard managed to intercept the enemy and repel them towards the right bank of the river, from where they had begun their attempt. It is probable that this attack was a reconnaissance attempt by the Roman Consul, aiming at determining the strength of the Greek defense. After his failed attempt, Laevinus decided to change tactics, implementing a deceptive maneuver. The Roman cavalry moved across river Sirius and distanced themselves for as much as it was needed in order to get unseen. Then, they crossed the river from a passable way and launched an attack against Pyrrhus' guard. The Greek guard was surprised and retreated in order to unite with the rest of the Epirote army. The way was now open for the Roman infantry, which begun crossing river Sirius untroubled. Witnessing this unfavorable for the Greeks development, Pyrrhus ordered the infantry officers to deploy the phalanx in line of battle. He himself, in head of his 3.000 horsemen, attacked the Romans, seeking to strike them while they were crossing the river and wouldn't have had time to regroup in its left bank. During the fierce fighting that followed, the Epirote King proved for one more time that besides a charismatic leader, he was also a capable warrior. Easily recognizable for the beauty and splendor of his richly ornamented armor, he was fighting stubbornly, killing every Roman soldier who attempted to confront him. While actively participating in the fight and vigorously repelling his assailants, he did not become confused in his calculations nor lose his presence of mind, but directed the battle as if he were surveying it from a distance as Plutarch mentions. The Epirote King was observing the whole front, bringing aid and encouraging those who had been overwhelmed or those who were retreating in face of fierce attacks. At this time, an incident occurred that might have had catastrophic events for the Greek side. A captain of a troop of horse, a Frentanian by race, named Oplax was riding out against Pyrrhus and following him in every movement from place to place. He was obviously aiming at a surprise attack, because whenever Pyrrhus changed his position, Oplax, riding a black horse with white feet was moving towards the same direction, in order to always stay close to the general of the Greek forces. Leonnatus the Macedonian, an officer of the Epirote army, observing that the Italian captain was intent upon Pyrrhus, warned the King of the upcoming danger. Pyrrhus calmly replied: ‘What is fated oh Leonnatus, it is impossible to escape; but with impunity neither he nor any other Italian shall come to close quarters with me.’ While the two men were still discussing, Oplax leveled his spear and charged upon Pyrrhus. When he came close, he speared the horse of the Epirote King. At the same time, Leonnatus managed to spear the horse of the Italian captain as well. The two heavily wounded horses fell down along with their riders, each of whom had a different fate. The King was seized and rescued by his friends while Oplax was encircled by the Greek horsemen and fought until he was killed. Pyrrhus, who had not been wounded by the fall, saw that the Greek cavalry was giving away. Judging that the time had come, he called up for the assault of the phalanx. In the meantime, he decided to undertake some measures for his own safety, as to avoid a similar incident such as the previous one. In order to be unrecognizable from the other Greek soldiers, he gave his companion Megacles, his cloak and armor and he rode another horse. For a long time the issue of the battle remained undecided. According to Plutarch there were seven turns of fortune, as each side either fled back or pursued. The Romans were trying to intercept the assault of the Epirote phalanx with repeated counterattacks. On the other side, the Epirote forces were trying to defeat the stubborn defense of the Legions of Laevinus. Many were the soldiers who fell from both sides and the balance of battle sometimes tilted to one and sometimes to the other. A random incident came close at destroying the Greek effort.

"Battle of Heraclea Pt II

When the Romans saw Megacles, riding and carrying the King’s armor, they believed that it was Pyrrhus himself, so they started pursuing him. Many of Laevinus riders were constantly assaulting Megacles. One of them hit him and he fell dead from his horse. The Roman rider, named Deksios grabbed the helmet and cloak of Pyrrhus from the dead hetairos. He then rode to Laevinus and showing him the loot and claimed that he had killed Pyrrhus himself. This incident was enough to change the course of the battle. The news of the supposed death of Pyrrhus spread like wildfire as the Romans were showing the King’s cloak and helmet to the legionaries and they were holding them high so that the Greeks would see them as well. Laevinus’ men were shouting happily and with raised morale attacked the phalanx. The Epirotes, believing that their leader was dead, were in despair and begun retreating in the face of the enemy assault. In the meantime, Laevinus sent a cavalry unit which he held as reserve to attack the phalanx from the rear. Pyrrhus, witnessing the battle being lost because of false rumors, understood that if he wanted to win this battle, he’d have to show to friends and foes that he was still alive. Therefore, he flamboyantly rode in front of his forces, without wearing a helmet so that the Epirotes and Romans would easily recognize him. Raising his right hand, he was saluting his soldiers and was shouting loudly that he was still alive. His intervention proved a saving one for the Greek side. The tides of battle turned. The Epirotes, full of joy, attacked fiercly, pushing the legionaries of Laevinus who were trying to recover by the unexpected recurrence of Pyrrhus. However, the worst were yet to come for the Romans. Pyrrhus was observing the enemies retreating with satisfaction and begun to believe that the victory was close. However, he had to make sure that Laevinus’ forces would not counterattack once again. It was time to hand the Romans the crucial blow. Hence, he ordered the assault of the war elephants. It was a deciding move, indicative of the strategic abilities of the Epirote King. The intervention of the huge animals was crucial for the final outcome of the battle. The Roman soldiers who witnessed elephants for the first time panicked and destroyed their formations. Their retreat become disorderly, as most of them had abandoned any thoughts of fighting back and were trying to find ways to save their lives. The disturbing sounds and smell of the war elephants … the horses of the Roman cavalry which panicked and stopped obeying their masters. Laevinus’ cavalry were unable to attack in order, having lost control of their horses and eventually scattered. The disorder was now more obvious. Some ancient historians mention that the assault of the elephants was stopped by the actions of just one man. Gaius Minucius an officer of the Hastati of the IV Legion, managed to cut the trunk of an elephant. The heavily wounded animal, due to the severe pain it felt, was unable to keep stable and turned against the friendly forces. However, not even this incident was able to change the catastrophic for the Romans course of battle (according to several sources this incident occurred in the battle of Asculum and not in the battle of Heraclea). The last move of the Epirote King was to order the elite Thessalian cavalry to persecute the disorderly retreating men of Laevinus. The assault of the Greek cavalry finalized the destruction of the Romans. Finally, the arrival of night saved the Roman force from complete annihilation. After his triumphal victory, Pyrrhus crossed river Sirius and captured the Roman camp. The panic of the Romans was such, that they retreated to Venusia without even asking to receive their dead. Concerning the casualties of the two adversaries, the sources do not agree with each other and give various numbers. Dionysius of Alicarnasus mentions that 13.000 Epirotes and 15.000 Romans died. These numbers are considered exaggerated. Ieronymus the Kardian gives a more realistic summary, saying that the Greeks had fewer than 4.000 men while the Romans had 7.000. Pyrrhus also captured some 2.000 prisoners most of whom were cavalry.