Title: The Policy of the Roman Republic and the Relations with Eumenes II of Pergamon
Author: Manuel I Komnenos


The Roman Republic and Eumenes II of Pergamon For as long as I can remember Pergamon has been viewed as a servant of Roman interests and as a lackey of the Senate. I would like therefore to investigate whether this is the actual case. I will concentrate on Eumenes II.
The Roman Republic and Eumenes II of Pergamon


The situation of Asia Minor at the time of Attalus' I death.

Attalus I is considered the first ruler of Pergamon to have been proclaimed king, after his victory over the Galatians, as historian and geographer Pausanias informs us. The extent of the kingdom of Pergamon under Attalus is difficult to establish, but Strabo writes that it covered the area from the gulf of Adramytium (in the north), to the gulf of Elaia (in the south). Polybius's mention of cities and areas under Attalus's control helps us define the extent of the kingdom more accurately. Apart from the city of Pergamon, Attalus controlled the cities of Cyme, Myrina, Phocaea, Temnos and Aigai (in Aeolis) and those of Teos and Colophon in Ionia. The king also controlled the area around the city of Thyatira, as well as parts of northeastern Mysia and Phrygia Epictetus (otherwise called Small Phrygia) which are impossible to establish with accuracy.

Attalus had managed to struck a treaty with the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great, after the two monarchs cooperated to defeat Antiochus' cousin and usurper of the Seleucid Asia Minor, Achaeus. The terms of the treaty are not known but it has been theorized with this treaty Antiochus formally recognized Attalus' status as a sovereign and equal monarch. Until that point Pergamon had been considered a revolted vassal and had faced several Seleucid expeditionary forces sent against it. The treaty between Attalus and Antiochus brought a period of peace and stability in Asia Minor and helped the latter keep the western frontier quite while he was undertaking his grand expedition in the east, the so called "Anabasis".

In 198 BC Seleucid policy towards Pergamon appears to have changed. Roman historian Titus Livy mentions that while Attalus was absent in Greece (participating in the 2nd Macedonian War), Antiochus attacked his territories, forcing him to return back to his kingdom to protect it from seleucid hostility. The episode has been disputed by a number of historians, over chronological considerations (Antiochus was still in Palestine) but an invasion of the Attalid Kingdom may as well have been carried by Antiochus's governor in Asia Minor, Zeuxis, who is known to have been particularly active in the area during that period, preparing the ground for Antiochus' comeback. What's certain is that between the last months of Attalus' reign (died in 197 BC) and the first of his successor's, Eumenes, the Attalid kingdom began to be hard pressed by Antiochus, who had already conquered the last Ptolemaic possessions in the coast of south Asia Minor. Pergamon lost its eastern territories, as well as a number of cities, such as Thyatira and Phocea.


Eumenes' reaction to the Seleucid threat

The new king of Pergamon realized that Antiochus posed a great threat for the survival of the kingdom his father had worked so hard to build. Naturally, he searched for allies and as his father had done, he turned to Rome. Eumenes' attempt to renew and strengthen Pergamene ties with the Roman Republic are evident by his participation in the war against the tyrant of Sparta, Nabis, in 195 BC, a war otherwise too far to matter to Pergamon. When the Senate sent a diplomatic mission to Antiochus (who, in the meantime, had already captured Thrace), it first stopped in Pergamon, where Eumenes attempted to stir the Romans against Antiochus. When the same embassy visited Antiochus' representatives in Ephesus, various Greek cities from Asia Minor sent representatives to launch accusations against the hostility of Antiochus. This had been secretly orchestrated by Eumenes. In the spring of 192 BC, Eumenes sent his brother, Attalus, to Rome, to notify the Senate that Antiochus had once again crossed the Hellespont and that he was campaigning against the Thracians. The behavior of Eumenes alerted Antiochus, who tried to arrange a betrothal between one of his daughters and Eumenes. The latter turned down the offer, likely considering he'd end up a Seleucid vassal.

Despite Eumenes' attempts to engage Rome against Antiochus, the former limited its reaction to protests over Antiochus expansion in Thrace and the conquest of Greek cities in Asia Minor. The dramatic Roman response only came when Antiochus, encouraged by the capture of Demetrias by his allies, the Aetolians, as well as by the false rumors that the Greek states would be rally to his cause, landed in Greece. Rome declared war and Eumenes himself participated in the Roman operations against Antiochus in Greece (though not in the battle of Thermopylae), later, in the naval operations in the Eastern Aegean and in the battle of Magnesia, in which he was instrumental for the Roman victory.


The Treaty of Apamea

According to the ceasefire terms imposed on Antiochus, the latter was to withdraw from his Asia Minor possessions, specifically those to the north and west of the Taurus Mountains. There was no mention of what was going to happen with these territories. This was the main point of interest for the states which sent representatives to Rome the following year (189 BC), when the time came for the discussion of the final settlement. Eumenes went to Rome himself, possibly in order to counter the claims of Rhodes, which had participated in the conflict against Antiochus and expected to receive some of the war's prizes. Eumenes was the first to address the Senate and his speech is listed by Polybius. There's no particular reason to doubt its authenticity. The king typically congratulated Rome for her victory and mentioned how loyal Pergamon had remained to her. More importantly, Eumenes attempted to forestall the claims of Rhodes. He said that the Rhodians would support the independence of the Greek city states, but only to bring them under her sway afterwards. The Senate then pressed Eumenes to publicly announce his own claims and the king answered that the annexation of Antiochus' territories by Rome was a prospect he welcomed; however, if Rome decided to withdraw, the territories should be awarded to Pergamon.

After the king's speech, it was time for the Rhodians to address the Senate. The Rhodian representatives indeed supported Greek independence. However, they recognized Eumenes' rights to the prizes of war. As they claimed, there was plenty of land which could be granted to Pergamon. The conflict of interests in the speeches of Eumenes and the Rhodians is evident. The two parties wanted to control the rich Greek cities. The Romans agreed with the Rhodian approach. The Senate had no intention of Roman physical presence in Asia Minor. At the same time, the Romans desired to award their faithful allies, but also to impose their program (employed in Greece after the 2nd Macedonian War), which called for the independence of the Greek city states. The Roman plan was to hand Asia Minor to Eumenes, minus Lycia and Caria south of river Meander, which were to be given to Rhodes and proclaim the autonomy of the Greek city states which had sided with Rome prior to the battle of Magnesia.

In 188 BC, Eumenes returned to Asia Minor with a body of 10 Roman legates, who were to make the final arrangements. The final terms were imposed to Antiochus in Apamea, the same year. According to them, Eumenes was to receive a huge chunk of land, which included Hellespontine and Greater Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, Milyas, Pisidia, Lycaonia and the cities of Tralles, Ephesus and Telmessus. Rhodes was to receive Lycia and Caria south of river Meander and the cities of Colophon, Notium, Clazomenae, Miletus, Ilium, Dardanus, Chios, Smyrne, Erythrae were to remain autonomous.

What was the point of this settlement? Rome clearly did not want to get involved in the matters of Anatolia. By granting this territory to Pergamon and Rhodes, it surrendered the obligation of its policing to those states. Pergamon would thereon be responsible for defending Roman interests and safeguarding the status quo. Eumenes himself had achieved a masterpiece. Not only had he managed to get rid of a dangerous rival, Antiochus, he had also been awarded a huge chunk of territory which vastly bolstered the wealth and power of Pergamon. In the end, who was the real victor? Rome had not engaged Antiochus because she wanted to carve an empire in the East. Rome had been forced to engage Antiochus in order to halt his expansion to the west and she had opted to create a safe zone between her and the Seleucid Empire (or other hostile Eastern states). That safe zone was awarded to her trusted ally, Eumenes. The primary beneficiary of the war was therefore Eumenes. He had pursued the war, he had actively participated in it from the start and he was benefited the most.


The Wars of Eumenes in Asia Minor - The Status Quo is Threatened



The War between Eumenes II and Prusias I of Bithynia


Although the power of Pergamon was greatly enhanced by the Treaty of Apamea, the extension of the Attalid Kingdom would soon lead to tension and hostilities with the neighboring states, which had claims in the various areas handed to Eumenes. Faced with his prospect, Eumenes searched for local allies and he found one in the face of the former ally of Antiochus III, Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia. Eumenes married his daughter, Stratonice, and through his influence in Rome, he managed to reduce the indemnity of 600 talents that Ariarathes was forced to pay to Rome, to half. The first war which would challenge the status quo of Asia Minor, erupted probably in 187 BC, when Prusias I of Bithynia invaded the Attalid Kingdom. The cause of the war was the claim of the territory of Smaller Phrygia (also called Phrygia Epictetus). Prusias had taken it from Eumenes's father, Attalus I, during the last years of Attalus's reign. During the Roman war against Antiochus III, when the Romans crossed the Hellespont and landed in Asia Minor, Prusias I chose to remain neutral, despite Antiochus's call to assist him. Prusias had hoped to secure his position through the friendship of Rome; however, Eumenes managed to persuade the Romans that Phrygia Epictetus rightly belonged to him and the Romans agreed that he should gain it, according to the Treaty of Apamea. Prusias not only refused to comply, but also chose to strike first. Hannibal the Carthaginian, who, in the meantime, had found refuge in Bithynia after the defeat of Antiochus, seems to have played a role in persuading Prusias to strike first. Prusias was also aided by the old enemies of Pergamon, the Galatians, who, at the time, had been unified under the leadership of Ortiagon, the chieftain of the Tolistobogii. Philip V of Macedon who was caught in a bitter dispute with Eumenes over the cities of Aenus and Maronea in Thrace (more on this later) and Pharnaces of Pontus also provided limited support to Prusias.

Few details are known of this conflict. Hannibal assumed the leadership of the Bithynian fleet and he managed to defeat Eumenes in a naval battle with his renowned cunning; he filled pots with snakes and launched them against the ships of Eumenes, forcing the latter to withdraw. Eumenes managed to turn the tide on land this time; a decree of the city of Telmessus, dated to 184 BC, honors Eumenes for a great victory against Prusias, Ortiagon, the Galatians and "their allies" and names Eumenes "Soter" (Savior). At this point Rome intervened by sending an embassy under former consul Coentus Flamininus, who managed to enforce peace on Prusias. The latter was forced to secede Phrygia Epictetus to Eumenes and hand Hannibal to Rome; the latter chose to commit suicide to avoid capture by his bitter enemies. As a result of his victory, Eumenes seems to have extended his control over Galatia, although he didn't completely annex it. Such thing was difficult due to the rural nature of Galatia and the almost complete absence of city-states from the area. To honor his victory, Eumenes extended the sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros (Bringer of victory) in Pergamon and asked the Greek city states to recognize her festival as a panhellenic one. The first festival was held in 182 and numerous Greek states participated in the games which were part of the festival.



Entrance to the sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros. The weapons and armors of the defeated enemies are displayed in the second level. The inscription between the first and second levels reads "ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΕΥΜΕΝΗΣ ΑΘΗΝΑΙ ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΩΙ". (Pergamon Museum, Berlin).

The War Against Pharnaces of Pontus


Immediately after the war with Bithynia, Eumenes faced the king of the rising kingdom of Pontus, Pharnaces. The war was a result of either Eumenes's extended control over Galatia, which Pharnaces considered in his sphere of influence, or an attack of Pharnaces against Eumenes's ally, Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia. During the winter of 183 BC embassies from Eumenes, Pharnaces and Ariarathes visited Rome and asked for arbitration over the disputed territories. In the meantime, hostilities had already began and the majority of the states of Asia Minor had been involved. Eumenes was supported by his trusted ally Ariarathes IV and Prusias II (he had succeeded his father, Prusias I, in 182 BC) as Pharnaces had taken the city of Tium from him, while the king of Pontus was supported by the satrap of Armenia, Mithridates. Seleucus IV of Syria (he had succeeded Antiochus in 187 BC) also considered intervention in the side of Pharnaces, but in the end refrained from crossing the Taurus Mountains, in order to avoid breaking the Treaty of Apamea.

The answer of Rome was to sent an embassy, which investigated the case and supported Eumenes's claims when it returned to Rome, prompting a second embassy in 181 BC, which didn't achieve anything noteworthy. In the meantime the brother of Eumenes, Attalus, who had assumed the leadership of the Attalid army since Eumenes was sick, agreed to a ceasefire and visited Rome himself, where he was warmly received and demanded the punishment of Pharnaces for his transgressions. The Senate agreed to send a third embassy to force peace terms on Pharnaces. In the winter of 181/180 BC, Pharnaces broke the truce with Pergamon and sent 10.000 men under his general, Leocritus to Galatia. Pharnaces himself attacked Cappadocia in the spring. When Eumenes had recovered from his sickness, he mustered his forces and marched to Galatia; however, when he reached the area Leocritus had already left. Two Galatian chieftains who had supported Pharnaces asked Eumenes for peace and forgiveness, but Eumenes did not accept. The king of Pergamon resumed his march, reached river Halys and then the city of Parnassus in Cappadocia, where he was joined by his ally, Ariarathes IV and his forces. The two allies marched north of river Halys and set up camp in the city of Mocissus, where the third Roman embassy arrived and persuaded them to leave the area and return to Galatia, while the Romans themselves would attempt to persuade Pharnaces to agree to peace terms. While Pharnaces denied to appear personally in Pergamon and discuss terms, he agreed to send ambassadors to the capital of Eumenes and discuss terms. However, the Pontian embassy turned down all terms, thus proving that Pharnaces was only seeking to buy more time. The Roman embassy thus left Pergamon and the hostilities continued.


The Altar of Pergamon, constructed by Eumenes in the acropolis of Pergamon. It was transferred to Berlin during the late 19th century and is now displayed in the Museum of Pergamon.

Eumenes reinforced his army and blockaded Hellespont with his fleet, in order to put pressure on the Pontic economy. However, he was forced to lift the blockade by the Rhodians, whose trade interests in the area where suffering due to the blockade. This action led to the deterioration of the Attalid-Rhodian relations and Eumenes is said to have supported the rebels of Lycia (under Rhodian control since the Treaty of Apamea) who fought to achieve independence. Finally, in the spring of 179 BC, Eumenes campaigned against Pharnaces and although no more details are known of the campaign itself, Eumenes forced the Pontic King to agree to peace terms, which have passed on to us in detail: Pharnaces was forced to give up his claims in Galatia and break all his treaties with the local Galatian chieftains, thus recognizing that the area was in the Attalid sphere of influence. Moreover, Pharaces was also forced to remove his forces from Paphlagonia, return the territories he had captured from Ariarathes IV and hand over to Prusias II the city of Tium. Finally, he had to pay as indemnities 900 talents to Ariarathes IV and 300 to Eumenes, while the satrap of Armenia, Mithridates, had to pay 300 talents.

After two successful wars in Asia Minor, Pergamon had reached the height of its power. Eumenes established new festivals in honor of Asclepius and Hercules. The city of Pergamon was extended and fortified with new walls. In the acropolis of Pergamon, the sanctuary of Athena was further extended, the Library of Pergamon was constructed (it would rival that of Alexandria in the following decades) and Eumenes began construction of the magnificent Altar of Zeus. The building was decorated with two friezes, the Large one depicting the Gigantomachy and the smaller one depicting the life of Telephus in chronological order. Telephus was the mythical son of Hercules and king of Mysia (where Pergamon was situated), and was therefore considered an ancestor of the Attalid Kings.



Detail of the Gigantomachy (battle of the Giants) frieze. Athena and Nike fight Alkyoneus, Gaia rises up from the ground.

Some great books on the subject and the ones I'm actually using for this article are these:


  1. R.E. Allen: THE ATTALID KINGDOM: A CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY, Oxford University Press, New York, 1983.
  2. B.C. McGing: THE FOREIGN POLICY OF MITHRIDATES VI EUPATOR KING OF PONTUS, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1986.
  3. THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY VIII ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN TO 130 B.C., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989.
  4. Erich S. Gruen: THE HELLENISTIC WORLD AND THE COMING OF ROME, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1984.


And of course the ancient sources like Polybius, Diodorus, Appian, Strabo and Titus Livy.