XANTHIPPOS ANTHIPPOS ADDRESSES THE TROOPS, TUNIS 255 BC
Ancient battles were dramas without an audience, and when the moment of battle approaches, when the lives of men under him, the issue of the combat, even the fate of a campaign (not to mention a country) may depend upon his decision at a given moment, what happens inside the heart and vitals of a commander? Some are made bold by the moment, some indecisive, some clearly judicious, some paralysed and powerless to act. Soldiers respect a commander who is competent. They admire a commander who is competent and bold. When he is an accomplished student of war, leads boldly, and also savours gambling his own life, he acquires a certain mystique. He is a soldier's soldier. Cautious commanders will shake their heads at this love of danger and condemn it as daredevilry, which it often is. They secretly admire it, however, and wish they had as much faith in their luck and power to lead lesser men that the mystique confers. The Spartan Xanthippos was clearly a man of parts who lived by his wits, that much is clear to us, but it would be nice to know if he managed to survive and thus was able to die in his bed. Having reached the top of the profession, it was Xanthippos who saved Carthage from the Romans, and then vanished suddenly and (maybe) for ever. Carthage owed everything to this mysterious Spartan, and Polybios does not fail to give his fellow Greek his due, considering him a striking vindication of Euripides' sagacity that 'one wise counsel conquers many hands' (1.35.4). In the very hour of his triumph Xanthippos disappears from the scene, quitting Carthaginian service, possibly for that of Egypt. Tunis was to prove Carthage's only victory in a land battle during the first war with Rome. Fighting spirit is the mood a good commander strives most earnestly to generate and sustain in his army. Naturally, proper concern for his men's welfare by provision of regular rations, prompt pay and creature comforts - the 'sinews of war' - is one means to achieve it. Exhortation is another; a commander can appeal to the pride and loyalty of his men, or manipulate them through promises of lasting fame and material rewards. Whether or not a commander addressed his entire army en masse, particularly one with linguistic diversity, is a debatable point. Anyway, Xanthippos' eve-of-combat harangue takes the form of a simple pep talk as he slowly walks along the line of battle. In this way he addresses the men in a few brief but well-chosen words, his encouraging apophthegms shouted back to those beyond earshot. Xanthippos is wearing a pi/os helmet adorned with a fore-and-aft horsehair crest. This style of helmet derives from a felt conical cap actually called the pi/os, which was possibly first worn as a protection underneath closed helmets (such as the Corinthian helmet, which completely encased the head) and later translated into bronze. The pi/os helmet is light and provides all-round vision, and seems to have first been adopted by the Spartans. The helmet terminates in a discernable point, very much like a sugarloaf, and has a narrow rim that does not stick out at all but follows the line of the crown, hanging almost vertically from the body of the helmet. As of old, Spartan hair continues to be carefully dressed (and oiled) in four locks falling to the front, two on either shoulder, and four to the back. Likewise, the upper lip continues to be shaved while the beard is generally kept long. Spartan tradition has it that long hair makes a fine-looking man more handsome, and an ugly man more frightening. Originally a garment typically worn by labourers to allow free movement of the right arm, the Spartans wear the exomis for warfare. This woollen tunic is two-sleeved, but the right-hand sleeve can be let down to leave the right shoulder and arm free to handle weapons in combat (providing, of course, the warrior lacked body armour). However, over his exomis Xanthippos wears a silvered cuirass richly decorated in relief. Despite the rather ornate armour, Xanthippos wears the trademark Spartan cloak. Called a trib6n, it is habitually described as 'mean', that is to say, thin as opposed to short. Spartan boys under training had to wear the same cloak in summer and winter in order to become accustomed to the cold. Self-denial is the keynote of the Spartan lifestyle, and warriors would visually emphasize their toughness by making use of a single woollen cloak in rain or shine, allowed to wear thin and never washed. Like the tunic, it is dyed crimson.