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Thread: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

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    Default [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century


    Subject of this elaboration is the time between the reconquest of Justinian and the period thereafter.

    an elaboration to honor the achievement of the Ῥωμαῖοι.
    At the end of the eighth century, many islands were left to themselves. The withdrawal of the Romans, and its reasons cannot be reconstructed in some cases. What remained for the posterity are the impressive castles, beautiful churches and basilicas, unique mosaics and wall paintings. Once again the tale of the Mare Nostrum was told.
    Ευχαριστώ πολύ!

    To give a small view about the military organisation I take 3 examples, Malta, cyprus and Mallorca. All islands were visited by myself.




    Chapter 1 - about byzantine Cyprus
    περίπου Κύπρος



    Chapter 2 - about byzantine Malta
    περίπου τη Μάλτα



    Chapter 3 - about byzantine Majorca
    περίπου Μαγιόρκα


    Chapter 4 - East Roman Troops - the Numerus
    περίπου ρωμαϊκά στρατεύματα - ο αριθμός

    ____________________________________________________________

    Chapter 1 - about byzantine Cyprus
    περίπου Κύπρος


    Cyprus - map created by the author
    Introduction
    Without any significant extent to address the previous time I start this elaboration regarding the history of Cyprus and his Government with the period of Justinian - which is is already the subject of the present work.

    In the year 535/536 AD. We read about a regulation to a man called Bonus - his character Questor Iustinianus - known from the Novella XLI, which explains that the Questor has both military and administrative supervision1 of the provinces of Scythia, Moesia, Caria, the Cyclades, and the territory of Cyprus.2

    As already supposed by George Hill3 at that time - this bold collection of different provinces has probably a simply reason. The roman authority had tried to relieve certain provinces which had been subjected to constant military incursions - and therefore inevitably suffered from a chronic lack of money and lack of recruits. In the opposite case, we see the Cyclades and in a higher degree Cyprus, doutbless a rich island. Such reductions of troops resulted not only in the regrouping of administrative levels but, more practically, by the dislocation of forces - for example, from one of the presental armies to Egypt.4

    It is difficult to reconstruct why these troops were not sent to the front in the north. But here human causes may be the reason. It is not difficult to to understand that a Magistri Militum had no interest to transfer expensive troops under the leadership of another Magister.

    In this act of restructuring, we see yet another step towards to the famous Theme order, even before they became visible in Italy. The principle of strict separation of military and civil administration was soaked again - albeit only for certain regions.
    The Byzantine cities of importance at that time were listed by Hierocles5, in 535 AD.

    1. Constantia metropolis
    2. Tamassus
    3. Citium Amathus
    4. Curium
    5. Paphos
    6. Arsinoe
    7. Soli
    8. Lapethos
    9. Kirboia
    10. Chytri
    11. Carpasia
    12. Kerynia
    13. Tremithus
    14. Leukosia6
    This list is basically also confirmed by Georgius Cyprius - an author who lived in the time of Phocas.7

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 ibid [...]annonas militum tam comitantensium quam limitatensium[...]
    2 ibid [...]quinque provincias, id est Scythiam et Mysiam et Cariam et omnes Cycladas insulas et Cyprum totam[…]; also supported by the entries of Ioannes Lydus , de magistr. II 29
    3 Gergoe Hill, A History of Cyprus Vol I, p. 258
    4 my new work, when officially released is a professional try to reconstruct a Notitia Dignitatum of the sixth century. Hereby many sources will be given.
    5 Byzantine geographer of the sixth century and the attributed author of the Synecdemus or Synekdemos; see also August Burckhardt: Hieroclis Synecdemus. Teubner Verlag, Leipzig 1893; as well Ernst Honigmann: Le Synekdèmos d'Hiéroklès et l'opuscule géographique de Georges de Chypre. Editions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves, Brüssel 1939
    6 the latter two were inlcuded in a later manuscript - a feature which shouldn't be overrated. Perhaps he had forgotten the two cities initially - plain and simple.
    7 Heinrich Gelzer: Georgii Cyprii Descriptio Orbis Romani (1890), p. 56; Here, however, without the cities Kirboia and Leukousia. But we have to admit that some authors haven't known all significant cities.
    Fortified cities and Kastra
    • Λευκωσία

    To the future capital of Cyprus - Nicosia - is to say that it always reappear under different names. The name Leukosia has already been mentioned and it seems that it was valid in the sixth and seventh century as well.1

    Leukosia must be mentioned in the list of fortified cities because it is practically proven that there were before Roman walls before the medieval walls were built.2


    • Αμαθούς

    Probably one the most significant military settlement on the island was Amathus - probably the seat of the Dux. This we learn from the biography of the Bishop of Alexandria Ioannes.3

    French-Cypriot excavations brought in 1980 the Market Square, the basilica and the remains of walls to light - apparently still completely intact in early Byzantine times.


    • Νέα Πάφος

    Paphos, or better said Nea Paphos, occupies a special position on Cyprus. Basically, if you want to believe the old school - the city has been reduced has been to an insignificant city after the numerous earthquakes in the fourth century. However, this conviction today can no longer survive. Modern excavations brought forth some brilliant mosaics whose creation can be determined in each case to the fifth century.4


    But in any case - Paphos was for sure a city were ruins stood beside beautiful Villas. The excavations have shown that not all buildings were repaired.5 A typical image of late antiquity which does not mean that the city has had no influence per se. We should also mention the mosaics of the Basilica Chrysopolitissa - at least some of them come from the sixth century.
    Because of the numerous earthquakes the city wall was probably not repaired anymore. To compensate the loss of the protection a kastron was built there in the late sixth century6. An almost unique action on the island. At least according to the current state of research all the other fortresses belong to a much later period. What is very surprising at first considering - since we find many byzantine castles on islands which were much smaller such as Mallorca and especially Malta. But this may be because of Cyprus had no significant external enemies until the early seventh century, - and on the other hand there was a dense network of fortified towns along the cypriotic coast - much denser than it was the case in Mallorca or any other island. Only when the threat has been obvious one came to the decision to protect Nea Paphos. Reasons for a possible thread was the Sasanian occupation of Roman Syria and Egypt - some time later the Arabian campaigns of course.

    • Κωνσταντία

    Constantia, there is now not much to say - but this town seems to have preserved something like the status of capital until the arrival of the Arabs

    Theophanes sets value on it to tell us that it was primarily the city of Constantia which was sacked and plundered by the Arabs - in addition to the rest of Cyprus - which is mentioned in passing.7
    If the city ever again purchased the status it has had before is hard to say.
    It was probably never completely destroyed. Most likely it is arguably the city lost more and more its importance - in the same way as Leukosia gained importance. In any case Leukosia has been mentioned by Hierocles - even if only in a later document.8
    But we can expect that Constantia in the first third of the seventh century was still an important city. Which is clear due to a passage by Ιωάννης ο Ελεήμων - again returning to Cyprus after Alexandria fell to the Sasanians. In Cyprus, he mediated in 616 AD. in the town of Constantia with a certain Aspagourius over the opening of the city.
    Aspagourius was probably a general sent by Constantinople - he had perhaps the task of either to secure Cyprus or to use Cyprus as a base for a military operation to Egypt or Syria. In any case he would have to use the resources of the country which probably met with incomprehension of the population.9


    ____________________________________________________________
    1 additional information by George Hill: A History of Cyprus, Vol I, pp. 263-265
    2 as described by Est. De Lusignan (Chorogr. Folio 16 und 31). The source reports that coins of Conatsntine and Hellena were found during the Roman walls were pulled down.
    3 Symeon Metaphrastes : Vita Sanctorum Mensis Januaris : Joannis Alexandriae Archiepiscopi cognomine Eleemosynarii, caput primum II [...] Νήσου τὴν ἀρχὴν [...]
    4 the Villa of Thesseus, located in the northern wing of the Villa; The Achilleus Mosaic Rooms 39-40
    5 Führer der Paphos Mosaiken, cultural Foundation Bank of Cyprus, ISBN 9963-42-012-5
    6 Saranda Kolones at Paphos, a workshop was established in the ruins of the castle of Saranda Kolones during the thirteenth century and continued to operate until the fourteenth century; also A. H. S. Megaw, in RDAC (1976): 117–46.; furthermore Angeliki E. Laiou The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, p. 604
    7 Theophanes (the Confessor), edition Harry Turtledove: The Chronicle of Theophanes: An English Translation of Anni Mundi 6095-6305, p. 43
    8 Gergoe Hill, A History of Cyprus Vol I, pp. 264-265
    9 H. Delehaye, Une Vie inedite de Saint Jean l'Aumonier, [...] στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ Κωνσταντίναν [...] Κύπρον [...], S. 25 See also secondary literature by Walter E. Kaegi: Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, p. 93


    Pahphos - The Achilleus Mosaic (mid to late 5th century)
    photo made by the author
    ἄρχων (Archon) or Δούκας - the Dux
    That the island of Cyprus was probably ruled by a Dux - under different names, is generally accepted. As mentioned above, the farther of the Holy Ioannes was Archon of the island.1
    Another text based on the same source mentiones Ioannes as Son ofCyprus`archon, called 'Epiphanius.2
    Supported is all this by another arabian text which mentioned a Urkun3 (=Archon?)(ارشون)

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 St. Leontius of Neapolis: Vita S. Joannis Eleemosynarii (Life of St. John the Almsgiver ). PG 93:1613-1660.
    2 Dionysios Pyrros, Panthektē Vol. 2 Νοεμβρίου […] υιός τοϋ Κύπρου άρχοντος, 'Επιφανίου καλουμένου [...] , p. 191
    3 Also confirmed by Abu al-Abbas Ahmad Bin Jab Al-Baladhuri, Philip Khuri Hitti: The Origins of the Islamic State (Kitab Futuh al-Buldan), Chapter XIII to the first invasion of Cyprus, know the details of an Urkun who led the negotiations with the Cypriots.


    Pahphos - Saranda Kolones - castle of the fourty columns (early 7th century). The castle was rebuild and enlarged in the 12th century.
    photo made by the author


    ____________________________________________________________



    Chapter 2 - about byzantine Malta
    περίπου τη Μάλτα

    An identitiy sustaining part of Malta is a passage from the Bible.

    ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ 28 : 1
    Καὶ διασωθέντες τότε ἐπέγνωμεν ὅτι Μελίτηνη ἠ νῆσος καλεῖται.

    Actus Apostolorum 28 : 1
    et cum evasissemus tunc cognovimus quia Militene insula vocatur barbari vero praestabant non modicam humanitatem nobis

    Acts 28:1
    When we were safely on shore, we learned that the island was called Malta.

    Apostelgeschichte 28:1
    Und als wir gerettet waren, da erfuhren wir, daß die Insel Melite heiße.



    A mosaic about St Paul's rescue on Malta, inspired by a fresco in the Vatican by Nicolò Circignani and given to Malta by Pope Benedict XVI.
    Introduction
    Malta, initially a small and possibly insignificant island. But as we shall see, these pearl of the Mediterranean has its right to exist in the list of important Byzantine outpost. The domination of New Rome lasted over 300 years and thus represents a longer period than the occupation of the Arabs or any other country.

    The role of Malta became in any case clearly important for the Romans when Africa as totally lost. Only then they were aware of the importance of this small island as a bulwark against the Arabs. But the previous time is also noteworthy.

    I would like now to anticipate that the research about Malta lasted far longer than for any other island. Extensive researches and excavations carried out only since the 70s of the last century. Sure, there were other excavations over a century ago, but these never reached the dimensions to get an overall and sufficient picture of the Byzantine era. Malta never had a Chronicler of its own - and an extensive puzzling has begun by including Latin, Greek and Arabian sources.

    Our story of byzantine Malta begins when it was first time mentioned in 533 - in the words of Procopius […] And setting sail quickly they touched at the islands of Gaulus and Melita […]1
    It may be doubted that Malta was occupied here. Perhaps there was also at first no reason for an occupation.
    In any case, the island was part of the Empire in 544 AD.2

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 Procopius BV III. 14, 16 […] Γαῦλο te kai Μελίτη ταῖς νήσοις […]
    2 Procopius, BG, II.24.28.
    Fortified cities and Kastra
    • Gaulos

    Gaulos. During the Middle Ages, a citadel was built here known as Gran Castello. Apparently, this facility was built on the ruins of the Acropolis, in the suburb of Rabat. About the dimensions and extent of the Roman city nothing accurat can be said yet - at least to my knowledge. Also a wall must have been here because the city actually lies on a plateau which is open on all sides.1



    • Μελίτη

    That the ancient capital Melite was still the center of the identical named island during the sixth and seventh centuries emerges from the archaeological finds relating amphorae and ceramics in general.2


    ____________________________________________________________
    1 reconstruction of the topography of the city is given in A. Claridge, The Roman Occupation of Malta and Gozo 1971, fig.16.
    2[…] al tardo VI-VII sec.: sigillata Africana delle forme H91 e 91D, 105 e 109, anfore LRA 5, variant tarde delle LRA 1, LRA 2 di piccolo dimensioni.[…]
    ἄρχων (Archon) or Δούκας - the Dux
    A specific indication of a military commander with a rank of a Dux is received during the reign of Herakleios - in 637 AD. The year when he sent his nephew to exile - to the island Gaudomelete - after a intended conspiration. The local Dux was ordered to amputate one of his legs - so that an escape is from the island was basically not possible anymore.1
    That the word Gaulos is standing prior to Melete - regarding the mixed byzantine word of Gaudomelete - shows that the main seat of the Dux was probably the smaller island of Gozo. At least it is worth to consider that during futher researches.

    Besides the above mentioned information that Malta was ruled by a Dux there is still another interesting source.
    A seal, which is said to come from the eighth or ninth century
    bears the name of Nicetas droungarios and Archon of Malta.2

    Despite any doubts regarding the date it seems clear now that there was indeed a garrison serving under the δρουγγάριος και αρχων - suggesting a troop strength of about 1,000 men. All other numerical examples up to 3000 men are in my opinion possible as well after north africa was completely lost.

    That the island was occupied by soldiers much earlier is indirectly revealed in a letter dated to October 598 - written by Gregory the Great to the bishop of Syracuse Ioannes.3

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 Πατριάρχης Νικηφόρος Α΄ (Nicephorus, Saint Patriarch of Constantinople)[...] Θεόδωρον δὲ πρὸς τὴν νῆσον τὴν Γαυδομελέτεν [...] ἐπιτρέψας ἐχεἴσε δουχι [...] , p.29 line 11
    2Gustave Léon Schlumberger, “Sceaux byzantins inédits,” Revue des études grecques 13 (1900), p. 492 n. 203
    3 Monumenta Germaniae historica. Epistolarum (1887-1939) IX 25 […] Quae adversus Lucillum Melitae […] … […] ab honoris sui et ipsos milites gradu deiciat et in monasteriis […]


    Malta and Gozo
    - map created by the author


    ____________________________________________________________


    Chapter 3 - about byzantine Majorca
    περίπου Μαγιόρκα



    Mallorca - map created by the author


    Due to an ongoing research the chapter 3 must be delayed to another moment. The forum of Ages of Darkness offers many elaborations and you will find the part about Mallorca somewhere in the future there.
    Just let me say that Mallorca had a busy byzantine history. Even lead seals of a Dux and other high officials were found. 1

    The upper shown map shows the attested kastra and the possible headquarters of the Dux.

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 Nueva luz sobre los siglos oscuros de Baleares y Pitiusas G. ROSSELLÓ BORDOY [...] Σεργιω δουκι
    [...]



    ____________________________________________________________



    Chapter 4 - East Roman Troops - the Numerus
    περίπου ρωμαϊκά στρατεύματα - ο αριθμός



    Ambrosian Iliad (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosia Cod. F. 205 Inf.) probably dating between 493 and 508 and produced in Constantinople


    The intention to start the last small chapter with a group called Numerus should be completet by the term Milites. In Spain, for example, we learn from the tales of Isiodore that Roman Milites were garrisoned there. This implies indirectly that the Romans were indeed able to recruit regular soldiers and/or transferred regular Stratiotai to the west. This conjecture is supported by some recently findings of eastern styled armament in Cartagena, Spain.

    But the wording of Isiodore - concerning the Milites - should not be overrated in general. For him it was just another word for regular Roman soldiers.

    The technical and conventional name of all Roman troops was the Arithmos.
    The name Katalogos can be found in some novelles of Justinians .1
    Furthermore "Telos" which is rarely used by Procopius.2
    Agathias is using the term Tagma, but he is rotating sometimes the words and used Taxis as well.

    Some words to the confusion with the Bandon and Arithmos or Bandum and Numerus.
    Beside the fact that a bandon was just a banner and not a unit - at least in the 5th and early-mid 6th century, (gr.: semeion) we see in the novels that all greek terms (Tagma, Katalogoi, Arithmoi etc.) were translated in latin as Numerus. A Bandon, in the meaning of a unit serving under a banner is, according my knowledge, firstly mentioned in the Strategikon of Maurice.
    Also the theory - recited like a mantra - that the bandon was per se a sub-unit of the Numerus is not true and not attested by any source. At least not until the 7th century. I have written recently an extensive elaboration that the Bandum was a unit composed by cavalry - and the units declared as Numerus were infantry. This is suggested several times in the so called Strategikon of Maurice.3

    The mental mistake some people are making is that they look at a specific Roman troop - called Legion - as the only true Roman unit. But we must keep in mind that many terms were completely outdated, even if most of them were still valid officially.4

    The commander of a Roman Numerus was a tribunus or praepositus.
    About its real strength, which varies between 250 and 508, I have given more than enough sources in the Thread about the evolution of the Legion.5
    But obviously there was not really a noteworthy difference between the 4th and 6th century concerning the basic strength of units.
    Finally let me say that we have always to differ between old units - now called Numerus - and new deployed Numeri. It is doubtless correct that an old Numerus, which is actually a Legion, is still numbering 1000 or even 2000 during the reign of Anastasius or Justinian.

    ____________________________________________________________
    1 Nov Iust. C II 2 and C III 3
    2 Procop. BG 23,3
    3 Please check our numerous elaborations in the main forum of Ages of Darkness. The elaborations are marked as Historiae-threads.
    4 Cod Iust XII 35,14
    [...]comitatensibus legionibus[...]
    ...from the reign of Arcadius et Honorius. However, since those terms were included into the Codex it shows that they were still valid.
    Cod Iust XII 42,1
    [...]tribunorum cohortium [...]
    ...from the reign of Constantinus, but also integrated into the Codex of the sixth century.
    Nov Iust CIII caput 3 §1
    [...]Et ille quidem praeerit militibus et limitaneis et foederatis [...]
    Cod Iust I 27 2 §8
    [...]ut extra comitatenses milites per castra milites limitanei constituantur[...]
    And all those terms were valid far into the reign of Heraclius and even beyond.
    The official generic term for all military units was since the 5th century (even in the Notitia Dignitatum!) the Numerus. This term became absolutely official in the codex as well.
    Cod Iust I 27 2 §8
    [...]unius numeri limitaneorum[...]; so, one can say that the Numerus was the general term for all Roman units - and terms like Legion, Cohors etc were the specific classification - which became irrelevant somewhere in history. I believe that many units were became quite similar in equipment and training.
    5 Please check te elaborations in the main forum of Ages of Darkness. The elaboration the evolution of the Legion is marked as Historiae-thread.



    Ashburnham Pentateuch, 6th or 7th Century
    Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, NAL 2334, folio 68r.



    ______________________________________________________________________________________________
    Text exclusively posted in our AoD Forum from the Scriptorium Writing Competition
    "The Post Justinian Period and its Legacy", the 2012 Scriptorium Summer Writing Competition Gold Medal
    Last edited by Pompeius Magnus; December 06, 2012 at 09:59 AM.

  2. #2
    tomySVK's Avatar Campidoctor
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    Very interesting article! Thanks

  3. #3
    Stath's's Avatar Protector Domesticus
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    Very good job!!


  4. #4

    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    Even though I didn't read the whole article, this is just amazing. Beyond anything I would've thought of!

  5. #5
    Pompeius Magnus's Avatar primus inter pares
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    Thanks a lot gents, the article will be completed soon concerning Mallorca (which is still unfinished) and selfmade (!) photos for Malta and Mallorca will be added also.

  6. #6
    tomySVK's Avatar Campidoctor
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    Great, I can´t wait for update

  7. #7

    Default Re: [Historiae] The Roman Mediterranean in the sixth century

    炸鸡

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