The Post Justinian Period and It's Legacy
Subject of this elaboration is the time between the reconquest of Justinian and the period thereafter. an elaboration to honor the achievement of the Ῥωμαῖοι. At the end of the eighth century, many islands were left to themselves. The withdrawal of the Romans, and its reasons cannot be reconstructed in some cases. What remained for the posterity are the impressive castles, beautiful churches and basilicas, unique mosaics and wall paintings. Once again the tale of the Mare Nostrum was told. Ευχαριστώ πολύ! To give a small view about the military organisation I take 3 examples, Malta, cyprus and Mallorca. All islands were visited by myself. Chapter 1 - about byzantine Cyprus περίπου Κύπρος Chapter 2 - about byzantine Malta περίπου τη Μάλτα Chapter 3 - about byzantine Majorca περίπου Μαγιόρκα Chapter 4 - East Roman Troops - the Numerus περίπου ρωμαϊκά στρατεύματα - ο αριθμός Chapter 1 - about byzantine Cyprus περίπου Κύπρος
Cyprus - map created by the author Introduction
Without any significant extent to address the previous time I start this elaboration regarding the history of Cyprus and his Government with the period of Justinian - which is is already the subject of the present work. In the year 535/536 AD. We read about a regulation to a man called Bonus - his character Questor Iustinianus - known from the Novella XLI, which explains that the Questor has both military and administrative supervision 1 of the provinces of Scythia, Moesia, Caria, the Cyclades, and the territory of Cyprus. 2 As already supposed by George Hill 3 at that time - this bold collection of different provinces has probably a simply reason. The roman authority had tried to relieve certain provinces which had been subjected to constant military incursions - and therefore inevitably suffered from a chronic lack of money and lack of recruits. In the opposite case, we see the Cyclades and in a higher degree Cyprus, doutbless a rich island. Such reductions of troops resulted not only in the regrouping of administrative levels but, more practically, by the dislocation of forces - for example, from one of the presental armies to Egypt. 4 It is difficult to reconstruct why these troops were not sent to the front in the north. But here human causes may be the reason. It is not difficult to to understand that a Magistri Militum had no interest to transfer expensive troops under the leadership of another Magister. In this act of restructuring, we see yet another step towards to the famous Theme order, even before they became visible in Italy. The principle of strict separation of military and civil administration was soaked again - albeit only for certain regions. The Byzantine cities of importance at that time were listed by Hierocles 5 , in 535 AD.
Constantia metropolis Tamassus Citium Amathus Curium Paphos Arsinoe Soli Lapethos Kirboia Chytri Carpasia Kerynia Tremithus Leukosia6 This list is basically also confirmed by Georgius Cyprius - an author who lived in the time of Phocas. 7 1 [...]annonas militum tam comitantensium quam limitatensium[...] 2 [...]quinque provincias, id est Scythiam et Mysiam et Cariam et omnes Cycladas insulas et Cyprum totam[…]; also supported by the entries of Ioannes Lydus , de magistr. II 29 3 4 my new work, when officially released is a professional try to reconstruct a Notitia Dignitatum of the sixth century. Hereby many sources will be given. 5 6 7 Fortified cities and Kastra
To the future capital of Cyprus - Nicosia - is to say that it always reappear under different names. The name Leukosia has already been mentioned and it seems that it was valid in the sixth and seventh century as well.1 Leukosia must be mentioned in the list of fortified cities because it is practically proven that there were before Roman walls before the medieval walls were built.2 Probably one the most significant military settlement on the island was Amathus - probably the seat of the Dux. This we learn from the biography of the Bishop of Alexandria Ioannes.3 French-Cypriot excavations brought in 1980 the Market Square, the basilica and the remains of walls to light - apparently still completely intact in early Byzantine times. Paphos, or better said Nea Paphos , occupies a special position on Cyprus. Basically, if you want to believe the old school - the city has been reduced has been to an insignificant city after the numerous earthquakes in the fourth century. However, this conviction today can no longer survive. Modern excavations brought forth some brilliant mosaics whose creation can be determined in each case to the fifth century.4 But in any case - Paphos was for sure a city were ruins stood beside beautiful Villas. The excavations have shown that not all buildings were repaired.5 Because of the numerous earthquakes the city wall was probably not repaired anymore. To compensate the loss of the protection a kastron was built there in the late sixth century 6 . An almost unique action on the island. At least according to the current state of research all the other fortresses belong to a much later period. What is very surprising at first considering - since we find many byzantine castles on islands which were much smaller such as Mallorca and especially Malta. But this may be because of Cyprus had no significant external enemies until the early seventh century, - and on the other hand there was a dense network of fortified towns along the cypriotic coast - much denser than it was the case in Mallorca or any other island. Only when the threat has been obvious one came to the decision to protect Nea Paphos. Reasons for a possible thread was the Sasanian occupation of Roman Syria and Egypt - some time later the Arabian campaigns of course. Constantia , there is now not much to say - but this town seems to have preserved something like the status of capital until the arrival of the Arabs Theophanes sets value on it to tell us that it was primarily the city of Constantia which was sacked and plundered by the Arabs - in addition to the rest of Cyprus - which is mentioned in passing.7 If the city ever again purchased the status it has had before is hard to say. It was probably never completely destroyed. Most likely it is arguably the city lost more and more its importance - in the same way as Leukosia gained importance. In any case Leukosia has been mentioned by Hierocles - even if only in a later document.8 But we can expect that Constantia in the first third of the seventh century was still an important city. Which is clear due to a passage by Ιωάννης ο Ελεήμων - again returning to Cyprus after Alexandria fell to the Sasanians. In Cyprus, he mediated in 616 AD. in the town of Constantia with a certain Aspagourius over the opening of the city. Aspagourius was probably a general sent by Constantinople - he had perhaps the task of either to secure Cyprus or to use Cyprus as a base for a military operation to Egypt or Syria. In any case he would have to use the resources of the country which probably met with incomprehension of the population.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pahphos - The Achilleus Mosaic (mid to late 5th century) photo made by the author ἄρχων (Archon) or Δούκας - the Dux
That the island of Cyprus was probably ruled by a Dux - under different names, is generally accepted. As mentioned above, the farther of the Holy Ioannes was Archon of the island.1 Another text based on the same source mentiones Ioannes as Son ofCyprus`archon, called 'Epiphanius.2 Supported is all this by another arabian text which mentioned a Urkun 3 (=Archon?) (ارشون) 1 2 3 Pahphos - Saranda Kolones - castle of the fourty columns (early 7th century). The castle was rebuild and enlarged in the 12th century. photo made by the author Back to top Chapter 2 - about byzantine Malta περίπου τη Μάλτα An identitiy sustaining part of Malta is a passage from the Bible. ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ 28 : 1 Καὶ διασωθέντες τότε ἐπέγνωμεν ὅτι Μελίτηνη ἠ νῆσος καλεῖται. Actus Apostolorum 28 : 1 et cum evasissemus tunc cognovimus quia Militene insula vocatur barbari vero praestabant non modicam humanitatem nobis Acts 28:1 When we were safely on shore, we learned that the island was called Malta. Apostelgeschichte 28:1 Und als wir gerettet waren, da er fuhren wir, daß die Insel Melite heiße. A mosaic about St Paul's rescue on Malta, inspired by a fresco in the Vatican by Nicolò Circignani and given to Malta by Pope Benedict XVI. Introduction
Malta, initially a small and possibly insignificant island. But as we shall see, these pearl of the Mediterranean has its right to exist in the list of important Byzantine outpost. The domination of New Rome The role of Malta became in any case clearly important for the Romans when Africa as totally lost. Only then they were aware of the importance of this small island as a bulwark against the Arabs. But the previous time is also noteworthy. I would like now to anticipate that the research about Malta lasted far longer than for any other island. Extensive researches and excavations carried out only since the 70s of the last century. Sure, there were other excavations over a century ago, but these never reached the dimensions to get an overall and sufficient picture of the Byzantine era. Malta never had a Chronicler of its own - and an extensive puzzling has begun by including Latin, Greek and Arabian sources. Our story of byzantine Malta begins when it was first time mentioned in 533 - in the words of Procopius […] And setting sail quickly they touched at the islands of Gaulus and Melita […]1 It may be doubted that Malta was occupied here. Perhaps there was also at first no reason for an occupation. In any case, the island was part of the Empire in 544 AD. 2 ____________________________________________________________ 1 2 Fortified cities and Kastra
Gaulos. During the Middle Ages, a citadel was built here known as Gran Castello. Apparently, this facility was built on the ruins of the Acropolis, in the suburb of Rabat. About the dimensions and extent of the Roman city nothing accurat can be said yet - at least to my knowledge. Also a wall must have been here because the city actually lies on a plateau which is open on all sides. 1 That the ancient capital Melite was still the center of the identical named island during the sixth and seventh centuries emerges from the archaeological finds relating amphorae and ceramics in general. 2 1 reconstruction of the topography of the city is given in A. Claridge, The Roman Occupation of Malta and Gozo 1971, fig.16. 2 […] al tardo VI-VII sec.: sigillata Africana delle forme H91 e 91D, 105 e 109, anfore LRA 5, variant tarde delle LRA 1, LRA 2 di piccolo dimensioni.[…] ἄρχων (Archon) or Δούκας - the Dux
A specific indication of a military commander with a rank of a Dux is received during the reign of Herakleios - in 637 AD. The year when he sent his son to exile - to the island Gaudomelete - after a intended conspiration. The local Dux was ordered to amputate one of his legs - so that an escape is from the island was basically not possible anymore. 1 That the word Gaulos is standing prior to Melete - regarding the mixed byzantine word of Gaudomelete - shows that the main seat of the Dux was probably the smaller island of Gozo. At least it is worth to consider that during futher researches. Besides the above mentioned information that Malta was ruled by a Dux there is still another interesting source. A seal, which is said to come from the eighth or ninth century bears the name of Nicetas droungarios and Archon of Malta. 2 Despite any doubts regarding the date it seems clear now that there was indeed a garrison serving under the δρουγγάριος και αρχων - suggesting a troop strength of about 1,000 men. All other numerical examples up to 3000 men are in my opinion possible as well after north africa was completely lost. That the island was occupied by soldiers much earlier is indirectly revealed in a letter dated to October 598 - written by Gregory the Great to the bishop of Syracuse Ioannes. 3 1 2 3 Malta and Gozo - map created by the author Back to top Chapter 3 - about byzantine Majorca περίπου Μαγιόρκα Mallorca - map created by the author Due to an ongoing research the chapter 3 must be delayed to another moment. The forum of Ages of Darkness offers many elaborations and you will find the part about Mallorca somewhere in the future there. Just let me say that Mallorca had a busy byzantine history. Even lead seals of a Dux and other high officials were found. 1 The upper shown map shows the attested kastra and the possible headquarters of the Dux. ____________________________________________________________ 1 Nueva luz sobre los siglos oscuros de Baleares y Pitiusas G. ROSSELLÓ BORDOY [...] [...] Back to top ____________________________________________________________ Chapter 4 - East Roman Troops - the Numerus περίπου ρωμαϊκά στρατεύματα - ο αριθμός Ambrosian Iliad (Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosia Cod. F. 205 Inf.) probably dating between 493 and 508 and produced in Constantinople The intention to start the last small chapter with a group called Numerus should be completet by the term Milites . In Spain, for example, we learn from the tales of Isiodore that Roman Milites were garrisoned there. This implies indirectly that the Romans were indeed able to recruit regular soldiers and/or transferred regular Stratiotai to the west. This conjecture is supported by some recently findings of eastern styled armament in Cartagena, Spain. But the wording of Isiodore - concerning the Milites - should not be overrated in general. For him it was just another word for regular Roman soldiers. The technical and conventional name of all Roman troops was the Arithmos . The name Katalogos can be found in some novelles of Justinians .1 Furthermore "Telos 2 Agathias is using the term Tagma Taxis as well. Beside the fact that a bandon was just a banner and not a unit - at least in the 5th and early-mid 6th century, (gr.: semeion) we see in the novels that all greek terms (Tagma, Katalogoi, Arithmoi etc.) were translated in latin as Numerus. A Bandon, in the meaning of a unit serving under a banner is, according my knowledge, firstly mentioned in the Strategikon of Maurice. Also the theory - recited like a mantra - that the bandon was per se a sub-unit of the Numerus is not true and not attested by any source. At least not until the 7th century. I have written recently an extensive elaboration that the Bandum was a unit composed by cavalry - and the units declared as Numerus were infantry. This is suggested several times in the so called Strategikon of Maurice.3 4 About its real strength, which varies between 250 and 508, I have given more than enough sources in the Thread about the evolution of the Legion.5 But obviously there was not really a noteworthy difference between the 4th and 6th century concerning the basic strength of units. Back to top ____________________________________________________________ 1 2 3 4 [...]comitatensibus legionibus [...] ...from the reign of Arcadius et Honorius. However, since those terms were included into the Codex it shows that they were still valid. Cod Iust XII 42,1 [...]tribunorum cohortium [...] ...from the reign of Constantinus, but also integrated into the Codex of the sixth century. Nov Iust CIII caput 3 §1 [...]Et ille quidem praeerit militibus et limitaneis et foederatis [...] Cod Iust I 27 2 §8 [...]ut extra comitatenses milites per castra milites limitanei constituantur[...] And all those terms were valid far into the reign of Heraclius and even beyond. The official generic term for all military units was since the 5th century (even in the Notitia Dignitatum!) the Numerus. This term became absolutely official in the codex as well. Cod Iust I 27 2 §8 [...]unius numeri limitaneorum[...]; so, one can say that the Numerus was the general term for all Roman units - and terms like Legion, Cohors etc were the specific classification - which became irrelevant somewhere in history. I believe that many units were became quite similar in equipment and training. 5 Ashburnham Pentateuch, 6th or 7th Century Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, NAL 2334, folio 68r. Back to top 
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