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Thread: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

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    Default [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes


    an elaboration by Pompeius Magnus for Ages of Darkness II




    chapter 1
    The depictions of Roman history - also single analyses - applied to the Roman order of Themes, came many times to the result that
    the Themes were based on changings concerning the imperial administration or as an act by legislative means.
    (see Ostrogorsky, "history of the byzantine state" 1940 page 57 and on, who put the Themes in the year 622 and declares them as base of roman administration.)
    Merely the time of the foundation of the single Themes was long time part of the discussion.
    Parts of the historians claimed the beginning of the Themes to the reign of Herakleios I (610-641). Other scholars say it was Constans II (641-668).
    (Baynes, "the emperor Heraklius and the military Theme system", 1952 page 380 and on)

    In one case all scholars are united - all say the Theme system was introduced completely in 687.
    This opinion is mainly based on a latin written letter of emperor Iustinianus II to pope Ioannes V. in the year 687. Later more about this letter.
    (see Mansi, Coll. Conc. 11, 738 or Dölger, Regesten der Kaiserurkunden der röm. Reiches, 1924 no.2549)


    However, in my opinion most scholars are ignoring an important fact - and this many times.
    We should keep in mind that the old provinces were still documentated and listed in all authorized laws and official council protocols. Even old lead (or plumb)-bulls are attesting the continuation of the old provincial system.
    [Gelzer, "die genesis der byz. Themenverfassung", Abhandlung der königlich sächsischen Gesellschaft, phil. hist. Kl. 1899, chapter 5
    pages 65-72]
    This fact speaks clearly against any ad-hoc system-change OR (and this is more important) against any kind of change based on laws. And it also speaks clearly against any kind of administrative changing.
    Many scholars underlay their theory on the so called Theme-Book [de them.]. It explains that Herakleios was the founder of the
    armenian Theme.
    [de them. 2,17, 63,1 ; doko de eipein oti epi Irakleiou basileios...]
    Furthermore the theory is based on 2 comments of Theophanes, which are claiming the existence of the Themes during the reign of Herakleios.
    [Theophanes 300, 4-6; 303, 10-12]

    However, the Theme-book was written 300 years after the reign of Herakleios and Theophanes lived 150 years after the reign of
    Heraklios. It is also worth to note that Theophanes used a military wording, which was mainly used during his own time in 813. His tales of Herakleios are based upon documents of the 7th century, however, it is very possible that he changed the military "wording" of the 7th century and replaced certain elements and words with words used in his own time frame.
    But let us analyze the report of Theophanos.

    [case stydy 1]
    It starts during the first years of Heraklios' reign. The army was mustered.
    "in all Themes there are just 2 soldiers left from the army of Phokas - fighting against Maurice".
    (Theop. 300,4)

    Such muster was basically always performed at the beginning of a campaign. The officers were reading the names which stood on a special list "stratiotikoi katalogoi" - and then the list was compared with the number of available soldiers of the previous year and then casualties were declared .
    (procedure described by Theoph.Simok. 256,7)
    Theophanos is using the term "all Themes". That suggests that more Themes, on a big scale, were present. But this is actually not possible at the beginning of Herakleios reign.
    The same report was used in the descriptions of Zonaras - mid 12th century. But here the term "Themes" is completely missing. Zonaras explains that the muster "stratiotikoi katalogoi" led to the result that from many thousand soldiers who fought for Phokas against Maurice just 2 were still available within the serving troop. The report of Zonaras is more detailed than the text of Theophanos.
    Obviously, the text of Theophanos was even during the middle byzantine time debatable.

    But one question remains. What kind of different field armies were mustered (falsely declared as armies from different Themes)?
    According the report of Theophylaktes it cannot be said fore sure that, beside the field army of Thrakia, another army was part of the uprisings against Maurice. The military groups of Bucellarii (formed a closed unit of the empire by the time of Maurice) and Optimatoi became years later the Theme of Opsikion. The wintering grounds of those troops was actually Herakleia in Thrakia. But it was probably just the field army of Thrakia who made the uprising against Maurice. A confusion occured because one of the commanders of the Optimatoi and Bucellarii, a man called Bonosus, was sent to the Thrakian field army to support a campaign against the Avars.
    Probably this was the reason why Theophanos thought that 2 field armies made the uprising - which is not true.
    That leeds to the result that Theophanos has indeed put the term "Thema" into his records by himself.


    [case stydy 2]
    Another interesting issue is the report about the campaign of Herakleios against the Sasanians. Three authors - three different versions.
    The version of Pisides shows that he used oringinal text scripts from the time of Herakleios. Two versions, that of Theophanes and Zonaras, mentioned "Themes".

    According Zonaras it was Herakleios who collected the troops among the Themes (laon ek thematon), gave them a military training and called foreign allies and auxillaries (symmachoi, Zonaras 208,10)
    As said, Pisides is not using the term "Themes". Probably Theophanos and Zonaras replaced the wording of "wintering grounds" with a term which was more common during their own era. It is also possible that they used the word to discribe the area of conscriptions.
    The latest elaborations regarding Themes are showing that there is no document of the 7th century which is using the term "Theme".
    (F.Dölger: zur Ableitung des byzantinischen Verwaltungsterminus Thema. Historia 4, 1955, 191 ; see remark 1)

    A contemporary witness, writer and historian of the Herakleian campaign - Theophylaktos Simokatta - never used the word Theme. When he described the troops he used always the area of the wintering ground in combination with the unit-name. That suggests indirectly that those troops had still no fixed wintering grounds during this time frame. (e.g. Theoph. 110, 9-10; 90, 1-3; 230, 23-24; 256, 6-7)

    If we consider the option that the Themes were introduced by a law - then we can say for sure that the Themes were not created by Herakleios - simply because any kind of order, instruction or law is missing or not known. To a greater degree it seems that the development of the Themes was a procedure of several centuries.




    chapter 2 - the letter of Iustinianus II


    US Military Academy History archives




    The letter of Iustinian II to Pope Ioannes V. in 687 AD may be declared as the first real evidence for the Theme-order of the Roman Empire. It contains a list about the Roman army and fleet. Beside both Exarchats in Africa and Italy, police and guard units of the capital - it lists 5 field armies - which gave the names to the first Themes. It is:
    • Opsikion
    • Anatolikon
    • Thrakesion
    • Armeniakon
    • and Karabisianon.
    In all known latin version we find the terms
    • imperiale obsequium
    • orientalis exercitus
    • Armenianus exercitus
    • Thracianus exercitus
    • and Cabarisiani.
    All groups, including the fleets, were also known before the reign of Herakleios - even if some had worn another name.

    [...]
    militantes incolas sancti palatii (the palace guard), nec non et ex collegiis popularibus (city militia of Constantinople), et ab excubitoribus (Excubitores), insuper etiam quasdam de Christo dilectisexercitibus (units of later Themes), tam a Deo conservando imperiali obsequio (Opsikion), quandam ab orientali (Anatolikon), Thrakiono (Thrakesion) similiter et ab Armeniano (Armeniakon), etiam ab exercitu Italiae (the italian army), deinde ex Cabarisianis (Karabisianois) et Septensianis (fleet stationed at Gibraltar), seu de Sardinia (fleet command of Sardinia) atque de Africano exercitu (the african field army).[...]
    Mansi 11, 738

    At the end of the reign of Justinian I. we know about 4 armies which are mentioned in the letter of 687 AD. In the east there are the mobile field armeis of the Magister Militum per Orientem and another one under the MMp Armeniam. The independent army of Armenia was established in 527 AD by Justinian.
    (described in Malalas 429, 16 and Theophanes 175, 5-10).
    They are evidenced until the reign of Herakleios. During the reign of Tiberios II a man called Ioannes Mystakon was leading the army (Theophyl. Simo. 55,19). Under Maurice a man called Narses (Theophyl. Simo. 205, 9-10) commanded the Armenian army as MMp Armeniam. And during the reign of Herakleios the army was commanded by Vahan (of Wahan) - and was part of the famous battle at Yarmuk in 636 AD (Theophanes 318, 4; 337, 3 and on).

    [1] The army of the MMp Orientem is well known since several centuries.
    [2] The Thakian army was stationed in Europe since long time also and will not be described further.
    [3] Since the reign of Justinian I. a second army was stationed in Europe and the leader was called Strategos tes peri ton Thraken ekateras dunameos. (Theophyl. Simok. 229,16).
    This army was (mainly) composed by 7 guard units (skolarion; see Theophanes 236,16), which was moved from its base in Asia Minor (Nikomedia) and stationed in Thrake near the city of Herakleia.
    However, it is of course possible that we are speaking here about the complete praesental army of the "MM praesentalis".
    Even under the reign of Maurice the base of this army was still Herakleia.
    During the reign of Herakleios it seems that the army was moved back to Asia Minor.
    The later known name of Opsikion (=obsequium) is probably an indication that we are speaking about the guard units. The letter of Justinian II mentioned an army called imperiale obsequium. The leader of this troop is called in an official synod-document komes tou basilikou opsikiou (Mansi 11, 209).
    The report of Theophanes describes the move of 7 guard units, commanded by a Comes (see source above), during the reign of Justinian I in 562 AD.
    A coherence is obviously given.
    The komes tou opsariou kai spatharios (Chronikon paschale 715, 20) is therfore the same office called komes tou opsikiou kai spatharios - of a unit stationed in or nearby Herakleia.
    [4] Also the mentioned fleet in the letter of Justinan II., the Cabarisiani, was established the first time by Justinian I. In the law of this emperor (nov 41) it was ordered that the province of Karia (asia minor) and the islands of the Cyclades and Cyprus and the border areas of Skythia and Moesia I have to be combined under one office - that of the Questor Iustinianus exercitus.



    chapter 3 - wintering grounds
    The nucleus of the first Themes were probably the wintering grounds. As described in chapter #1 we can observe a clear analogybetween the different authors who described the history of those Themes. 2 authors were speaking about Themes, one (contemporary) author used the name of the city in combination with the name of the unit (or army) where the wintering ground was arraged. Therefore it is possible that during the first half of the 7th century the wintering grounds of the bigger armies were always arranged in the same area - and not like before always in different areas and cities.

    The comment of the Theme-book whereby Herakleios is the creator of the Armenian Theme - is probably just a confirmation that it was Herakleios who gave the Armenian field army a fixed position during the winter. A kind of fixed headquarters.
    (de thematibus 2,63 1-5)

    On the other hand the province of roman armenia had its own history and very special circumastances. The right to perform the job as MM p. Armenian was just given to the highest 3 families of Armenia (Bagratuni, Mamikonian and Arsakuni). The area of influence of those families was more or less always the same. Therefore we can guess that the army was also before always stationed at the same position.

    Perhaps we should go to the past.
    Maurice gave the field army of Thrakia a fixed position. I was many years (not always) staioned during winter near the city of Anchilaos (wintering grounds).
    The army of the guard units was mostly stationed in Herakleia.
    The army of the MM p Orientem - which resulted in the Theme of Anatolikon - was many times staioned in Kappadokia (Kaisareia) during winter! That was a common wintering ground during the reigns of Herakleios, Maurice and even under Tiberios II. (578AD)

    The reasons had a strong economical background. When a field army get a fixed base - it was the common population who get had to feed them. The so called coemptiones was more than one time the reason why farmers and even cities were completely bankrupt after the field army left the area again after the winter. When the province was not able to deliver the ordered grain - they had to buy the missing goods from other provinces and sell it for a much cheaper prize to the army (the prize for corn which was sold to the troops was fixed by law!).
    The problems of that procedure - and the incredible high burden for the local people was described by Procopius (arcan. 136, 15)

    It was Maurikios who tried to find a better solution for this problem and moved the troops during winter into the areas of the enemies, e.g. north of the Danube river. But the flip side was that this was leading into mass-desertions and revolts.
    The order of Maurice survived and we know the letter of him due to the report of Theophylaktos Simokatta (295,9). In this letter he explained the troops the problematic support of the cities and provinces. He made the same in the case of the troops of Italy. Also here we know due to the Chronicon Tuscanese that this order came hand with mass-desertians and revolts as well.



    chapter 4 - reforms of Justinian

    Justinian I. established the office of the Quaestor Iustinianus exercitus (see above). The special issue of that office was that the commander had also the right to collect the tax in this area (danube area, Cyclades, Cyprus etc). And now we known the reason why this military officer had worn the title Questor!
    The annona of the mentioned areas was given to this new formed military army by law (nov. 41 of the year 536AD).
    Basically this privilege was reduced on the winter-months during the classical time when wintering grounds were arranged. De facto a huge proportion of the power from the praefectus praetoro moved to the military.
    This system eased the tention between the tax and annona paying population and the hungry army. Furthermore, the local commander-in-chief in those areas was better briefed regarding the general condition of the province and therefore most times willing to reduce the tax - compared to an high official (praefectus praetorio) who had his seat in the capital - far away from the province.
    Deferments of payments are evidenced in the novells 1481 from the year 566AD and 163,2 from the year 575AD.

    On the other hand we must say that the danube area was home of countless Limitanei, Burgii and Castrenses troops. That means that those provinces (Skythia et Moesia I) had many experiences for providing supply for the troops. Simply said - they were always prepared. Those typically static Roman troops nealry disappeared during the reign of Maurice in the mentioned area. Basically everybody thinks that the situation was now more easy to feed just one field army. However, the collapse of the danube frontier gave a big negative effect on the local economy and farming in those regions.

    The second reform of Justinian included the creation of the offices of sacellarius and cubicularius. Those offices were given to the military commanders of the field armies. They bebame now official tax officers. The first man who had worn this double-office was the famous general Narses during the reign of Justinian I. He is described by Malalas (486,15) and Theophanes (228,19) as Exarchus et cubicularius.
    The procedure to give the tax-authority into the hands of commader-in-chiefs was also performed in Italy.
    But the reform was not just reduced in the introduction of a new double-office. Also the troops of the wintering grounds were also shared and divided on a huge area. A field army was now streched on a huge area.

    Now we have to discuss the next problem: the new enemies of the emprie, steppe people like the Avars raided the empire constantly during the winter months!
    The old Limitanei and static garrisons in cities were stationed long time ago within the villages and cities. The old latin term "Castra" or (smaller) "Castellum" was now synonymical used for the complete city. The urban areas of the roman cities became - since mid 6th century - much smaller concerning the dimensions (this does not automatically mean that those city had a smaller population). And the complete settlement was now called "kastron".

    In the Corpus Juris Inst. 27,2,8 we can read the order of Justinian I. to built up a working Limitanei organisation in north africa after the reconquest and the order to built up castles for Limitanei and field troops.
    Such a system was now needed for the single units of the mobile field armies - whose detachements and Numeri were now streched and shared on a bigger area during the winter months (see above).

    let's take look what the order said:
    [...] pro limitaneis vero ordinandis, ut extra comitatenses milites (field troops) per castra milites limitanei constituantur, qui possint et castra et civitates limitis defendere et terra colere, ut alii provinciales videntes eos per partes ad illa loca se confereant) exemplum fecimusunius numeri limitaneorum.[...] and so on...

    it gived the order to built up the limitanei in garrison them into "castra". The term "exemplum" (example) is referred to the field armies. That means that the same "castra" should be built for the field armies (...take an example of that of the Limitanei and use it for the comitatenes).

    Ergo: the single units of the field armies were spreaded over the provinces, were garrisoned in its own castles. The order of Justinian also explains that the parcels of land should be taken from the state, from the church and from private people (magnates).
    Now everybody can imagine that if the connection to the central command is not given anymore that those garrisoned troops were paid by the local rich magnates or even members of the church (e.g. bishops). This became reality in Italy when imperial troops became more and more integrated into the local cicumstances and this was also one of the reasons why some cities became incredible powerful (and de facto independent) in the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries. But this is another story and shold not be discussed here.
    The units of the field armies were now protected - even or especially during the winter months. But they became also more slow and more static. That's what I always call "offensive static troops".

    This was many years criticized by historians and even my contemporary witnesses like Procopius. Actually this system took away pressure from common people and farmers, secured the overstreched borders and made them defendable with a smaller army (at least for a while), and it was a key-element to withstand the raids from Avars, Bulgars, Slavs, Berbers and others.




    chapter 5 - Iustiniana Prima or "the city of the empress"

    Iustiniana Prima
    Not entirely representative for a Kastron in general - simply because the city was declared as capital of Illyricum by Justinian - is Iustiniana Prima.
    However, is was acutally built as the ideal-city and modern excavations had shown that it was indeed a city which was equipped with barracks, the Principia (military headquarters), a palace, christian Basilika, regular houses for the inhabitants and everything else what a roman city needs (including baths etc.).
    A new issue was that the architects tried to find a fluent cross-over between classical graeco-roman building structurs and something "new".

    Iustiniana Prima, the "city of the empress" was built by Justinian and existed from 530 until 615 AD. According all kwown descriptions (and confirmed by the excavations) the city was probably very beautiful and achieved automatically an high degree of defence. It is mentioned many times throughout the complete sixth century and Procopius mentioned the pearl of the Romans many times.

    The problem why this city existed an exeptional short time is that it was simply located (since the reign of Maurice) too far north and was surrounded by enemies. Furthermore the permanent raids by Avars and Slavs made the life in that region completely impossible. The city was partially destroyed by the Avars and then left/evacuated (controlled!) by the authority and the people in 615 AD.
    The dream was ending after just 85 years.



    Justinian Prime, 3D-Animation (V. Zdravkovic)




    Credits

    Intellectual and literary property belongs to the author.
    The elaboration was made by using my own sources of Theophylaktes Simokatta and Theophanes - and new developed knowledge concerning the East Roman army which was elaborated during the last 2 years of my own studies. The knowledge of the Themes was reinterpretated and added by many new informations.
    The elaboration may be used for other threads, mod-forums or internet pages - however, a written request is essential and a matter of courtesy.




    page still under construction
    Last edited by Pompeius Magnus; April 04, 2012 at 09:43 AM.

  2. #2
    Bull3pr00f de Bodemloze's Avatar Occasio mihi fertur
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    Yet another excellent and interesting read, Pomps. + rep !

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    juvenus's Avatar Campidoctor
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    read it with a single breath.


  4. #4
    Pompeius Magnus's Avatar primus inter pares
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    thank you.
    I try to add a last chapter about the "soldier-goods" (given land) next time regarding Italy and the Roman east - then we have a better analogy about the stepwise permanent settlement of former Stratiotai/Comitatenses (but it's also partially described yet)

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    The excited one's Avatar Senator
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    mmmm strange who make the thema system in the first place?
    Last edited by The excited one; July 29, 2011 at 08:22 AM.
    war is peace, ignorance is strength, freedom is slavery......
    (george orwell 1984)

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    Pompeius Magnus's Avatar primus inter pares
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    what exactly is "strange"?

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    The excited one's Avatar Senator
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    because there are lots of people saying that the thema system is created by different emperors within a span of 50 years
    war is peace, ignorance is strength, freedom is slavery......
    (george orwell 1984)

  8. #8
    Pompeius Magnus's Avatar primus inter pares
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    As described in the text: the first step into a Theme system was started with the creation of the office of the Quaestor Iustinianus, influences of static wintering camps, the installation of Exarchs, fortified positions of mobile Comitatenses, and the retreat of the field armies to Asia Minor. A confirmation is not given before 687AD. An evolvement of round about 150 years.
    Last edited by Pompeius Magnus; July 29, 2011 at 09:30 PM.

  9. #9
    The excited one's Avatar Senator
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    that means the empire is decentralizing itself for 150 years......... nuts
    war is peace, ignorance is strength, freedom is slavery......
    (george orwell 1984)

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    Blatta Optima Maxima's Avatar Vicarius Provinciae
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    What's so weird about that? Reaction to new circumstances.

  11. #11
    The excited one's Avatar Senator
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    oh please i didn't say its weird or sth like that i mean that it takes THAT long to evolve itself
    war is peace, ignorance is strength, freedom is slavery......
    (george orwell 1984)

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    Blatta Optima Maxima's Avatar Vicarius Provinciae
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    A gradual process of decentralization is bound to happen to a state constantly waging war along its borders - it is more efficient to allot more power to localized commanders and officials to ensure quicker and more coordinated response to small scale threats.

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    Deutschland's Avatar East of Rome Mod Leader
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    I remember having read that the Thema institution is regarded as "low end" solution (Guess it was Ian Morris) because it required less organization. That would mean the Thema system is inferior to the older system of garrison armies and field armies.

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    juvenus's Avatar Campidoctor
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    Default Re: [Historiae] The commencement of Roman Themes

    i think that Thema is also more cost-efficient.


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