Roma Surrectum II presents: The Roman Auxilia

**tone** · February 07, 2010, 02:49 PM

ROMA SURRECTUM 2 PRESENTS: THE ROMAN AUXILIA

When we look back at the Legions of Rome, as we imagine them marching over the hills into foreign lands, as the men and women of the tribes of Europe stood wide-eyed and gazed at these disciplined, armed monsters that had come to conquer their homeland for the glory of their Empire…

What do we see? What do we think of?

The Legionary. The foot soldier. Ever since the Marian reforms, these men have been professionals, hardened lumps of solid muscle and determination. Their weapons became iconic symbols of Roman occupation, and for centuries to come the Scutum shield, their ‘Imperial Gallic’ helmets and not least the legendary short, stabbing sword, the Gladius, would represent an army that ruled the world.

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Originally, only those of Roman blood who owned land were allowed to join the Legions as a foot soldier, or even a horseman - an Equite (The word ‘equestrian‘, used to denote wealthy citizens of Rome, stemmed from this need to be rich enough to own your own horse). But all that changed with the arrival of a Roman General named Gaius Marius.

The Cimbri and Teutones, Germanic tribes, migrated south to search for a new homeland, and their path took them into the wealthy and prosperous Roman settlements in Noricum (North Italy/The Alps) and South Gaul (modern day Côte D’Azur). These provinces were extremely important to Rome, due to the wealth of trade and military strategic value of many large cities in these areas, not least Massilia (now Marseilles), Burdigala (Bordeaux) and Aventicum.

The arrogant Romans, as usual, expected the war to be a simple matter.

Their presumptions unseated the foundations of Rome.

As Romans fought against the tribes, suffering a string of massive defeats to the hordes (a demeaning description - the Cimbri had disciplined, professional soldiers, with excellent equipment and a sophisticated officer corps), Marius realised that the armies of Rome needed a complete renovation. The war was decided when Rome raised some of the largest armies in its history, second only to those created to rid Italy of Hannibal in the 2nd Punic War. It took tens of thousands of troops to defeat the tribes (8 legions at the Battle of Vercellae alone), but Rome pulled it off. Both the Teutones and the Cimbri were wholly exterminated, but not before Marius had already begun to change how the Legions work.

The first and immediate difference was that the landless masses, who had no property, were offered permanent employment in a professional standing army. Furthermore, citizens of Italian allies (Etruria, Picenum, etc) were offered full Roman citizenship in exchange for completing a period of service in the Roman army.Indeed, following the Battle of Vercellae in 101BC, he granted all Italian soldiers fighting in that battle Roman citizenship. This effectively eliminated the notion of allied legions, the role of which would eventually be taken up by contingents of auxiliary troops called Auxilia.

Although that was not the only change that Marius would make, and he would go on to start Rome’s first civil war against Sulla, it would leave a lasting impression on not just the Legions but the Empire as a whole.

Legions became famous for often having their country of origin as part of their name, and so many non-Italians ended up in the army that within a hundred years of the Marian reforms in 107-106 BC, if you had listened to the chatter of Legionaries as they marched, the last language you would have heard was Latin! That was the strength of Rome; not just in conquering peoples, but assimilating them to Roman culture and ways of life, including incorporating them into the military. At the same time, they learned from those they invaded, the most significant example being when they changed from using Greek hoplites to a Manipular strategy using Iberian weapons, and in the later days of Rome, the famous Sarmatian knights. So most of Rome’s auxiliary troops were foreign…

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The backbone of Rome’s army was the Legionary. The flexibility of the Manipular stategy, and later on the even more professional and hardened cohorts, all overlaid with total practicality, made Rome’s armies the extremely effective fighting force we all know and love. But heavy infantry in itself is not enough to win battles. The Romans have always been known as contemptuous and xenophobic, and originally this lead to many problems when the Legionaries did not have sufficient support.

Name an infamous (or famous, if you want to think of it that way) Roman defeat. Cannae. Lake Trebia. Asculum (although that’s a mute point in terms of 'defeat'). Especially in Hannibal’s case, it was due to the brilliance of the enemy commanders - but it was these men’sstrength to realise that the Romans weaknesses were in their auxiliaries. Infantry the Romans did better than anyone else - it fought better and was more practical on/off campaign. However, certainly at first, they had a famously small light cavalry force, and little in the way of missile troops either.

Of course, there were the Velites of the Manipular system, who were the javelin men of the Roman armies. But what about archers? And although the Praetorian cavalry were excellent, and Caesar’s Extraordinari were vital in his campaigns to secure Gaul, the Romans still needed proper cavalry. In the dying days of Rome, the armies would use Cataphracts from Eastern provinces and Sarmatian cavalry to great effect, but in the late Republic and throughout much of the Empire’s reign, they simply needed an improved cavalry screen. The Romans realised that these needs, and as it had been proved that provincial levies made fine Legionaries, why couldn’t the warfare skills of conquered countries be made to work for Rome?

At first, the Romans were well known for using Balearic slingers to soften up enemy formations. As the Empire expanded, the famous archer mercenaries of Crete became part of Rome. Not liking to depend on expensive and unreliable mercenaries, the Romans absorbed the Cretans into their army, repeating this process with countless other missile, foot and horse auxiliary troops.

In RS2, we aim to give you a no expenses spared, widescreen view of the auxiliaries of Rome’s heyday - the men that made Rome what it was. Yes, the Legionaries may take much of the credit, but they couldn’t have gone outside their back door without these men who left their homes all over Europe and were sent to fight for the Roman Legions.

Spare a thought for the true CONQUERORS OF THE WORLD.
P.S. Now you can put down your hankies and enjoy

Credits:

Introduction: SonofAlexander
Historical research: DVK and Rory O'Kane
Models and skins: Tone
Gladius and scabbard models: Burninator
Shield models and skins: Pacco
Shield skins: Leif Erikson
"Real horse" reskins: Argent Usher
Screenshots: Tone

**tone** · February 07, 2010, 02:50 PM

INFANTRY:

Cohors I Damascenorum Sagittarii

The Cohors I Damascenorum Sagittarii are excellent archers who came originally from Syria, which has been famous for its archers for centuries. Discipline and excellent training are their main strength in battle as they wear down the enemy at a long distance with their reflexive bows. Such skills cannot go unnoticed and make them a desired addition to any army. Although equipped with scale armour and helmets, they cannot be expected to fight well in melee. These soldiers are best suited for ranged combat and thus will require some protection of other troops. After the fall of Hellenic empires Syrian Archers were often used as auxiliary troops in the Roman Army. They are known to have been stationed even in the most distant parts of the Roman Empire, such as Iberia or Britannia.

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Cohors I Cretum Sagittariorum

The Cohors Sagittariorum are men of Crete, who are famed for their archery skills. They can rain arrows on their opponents, not just bombard them! These men can be used to soften up a battle line before the main fight is joined, or be placed behind a line of defensive troops such as spearmen. If left unprotected they are vulnerable to attacks by cavalry and light skirmishers, as they have little chance of lasting for long in hand-to-hand combat. Historically, the term 'Cretan' came to represent a fighting style rather than an area of origin, so many of these men are from elsewhere in the Greek world. Those originally from Crete are highly valued in cities and towns on the mainland as archery instructors. These men are known to have accompanied Roman armies almost everywhere in the late Republican days, and later in the Empire.

As mercenaries, the Romans had found themselves fighting Cretans on the sides of Carthage and Syracuse, although it was their presence in the crews of Cilician Pirates that made them keen to use them themselves, as Crete was known at the time as a haven for crooks and thieves, with bad behaviour known as ‘the Cretan Way’. Ancient texts tell us of their red uniforms, and as this is hardly a suitable colour for ambushing troops, they must have worn them as a sign of prestige, for the Romans famously saw red as the god’s colour.

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Cohors II Gallorum Dacica

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The first time that the Romans took any real notice of the Dacians was during the early 1st century BC, when the Dacians, under their King Burebista, sided with the Greek cities south of the Danube during the Second Mithridatic War (74-72 BC), when the Greek cities were being occupied from Roman forces commanded by Varro Lucullus, the proconsul of Macedonia. The Dacians are described by the Romans as a warlike people, fighting fiercely in battle, and preferring death to surrender. The Dacians were particularly famous for their use of the falx - a wickedly sharp curved blade, wielded with two hands, with the cutting edge on the inside of the curve. It could be used to hack at an enemy, or, when used in a downwards pulling motion, it was easily capable of severing an enemy's limbs or head. This weapon was so effective that it forced the Romans to modify their equipment - the Italica pattern-helmets issued to Roman troops in the early 2nd century AD came with cross-bars reinforcing the top of the helmet, and segmented arm guards (known as "manicae") were issued to the troops to protect their forearms from these wicked Dacian weapons.

Following Burebista's victory over a Roman army near Histria, many of the Greek cities south of the Danube, including Apollonia, accepted Burebista's invitation to become part of his kingdom. After fourteen years of relative peace, during which Burebista profited immensely from his new-found Greek allies, Burebista launched several campaigns against the Celts to the west of Dacia, and by 48 BC, the Dacians had defeated the three most powerful tribal coalitions in the area, namely the Scordisci, Taurisci, and the Boii, destroying the latter tribe's main oppidum (i.e. their capital), which is now modern Bratislava. All this activity to the north of the Romans' province of Macedonia did not go unnoticed, but the Romans had problems of their own - the Republic was wracked by civil war. When Pompey retreated from Italy to his power-base in Greece in 49 BC following Caesar's invasion of Italy, Burebista declared that he would support Pompey. In the following year, Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey fled to Egypt, and was murdered. Caesar planned to send legions into Dacia to punish Burebista for his support of the Optimates, but he was assassinated in 44 BC, before the invasion could be carried out. Ironically, Burebista was assassinated in the same year.

Following the death of Burebista, relations between the Roman leadership and the Dacians were rather amicable - Octavian sought not only the help of the Dacians in his fight against Mark Antony, but he offered his daughter (Julia)'s hand to king Cotiso in marriage as an exchange for the hand of King Cotiso's daughter. This period of relative peace allowed the influx of Roman merchants into Dacia, along with Roman technology and knowledge of fortifications, resulting in the somewhat hybridised nature of Dacian fortifications encountered by Trajan's forces when the Romans invaded under him. This period of relative peace lasted for around 130 years, in some way helped by the division of Dacia into four separate states following Decebalus' death, which reduced the perceived threat to Roman security represented by Dacia. However, in 85 AD, the Dacians began to raid the Roman province of Moesia, immediately opposite Dacia across the Danube. These were, according to some sources, originally Dacian lands that the Romans had conquered as early as 74 BC. The following year, the Dacian King, Duras, ordered a far more serious assault on Moesia, in which the Governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinus, was killed. During these raids, the Emperor Domitian was far from idle. After finishing the campaign in Germania begun by his father, Vespasian, and his brother, Titus, to secure the Upper Rhine and Danube by securing the Agri Decumates, he turned his attention to Moesia. After reorganising it into two separate provinces (Moesia Superior in the west, and Moesia Inferior in the east) and shoring up Roman defences along the Danube, he began to plan an invasion of Dacia.

In 87 AD, the Romans launched their attack. An army of five or six legions crossed the Danube under General Cornelius Fuscus, and marched towards the Dacian capital, Sarmizegethusa. The Roman army was ambushed by the Dacians, under their new King, Diurpaneus, at Tapae, and suffered heavy losses. Fuscus was killed, and one legion, Legio V Alaudae, was completely wiped out. The Romans retreated across the Danube, having abandoned all their artillery, standards (including the Aquila of the Praetorian Guard), and other burdens. In recognition of this victory, Diurpaneus took the title "Decebalus", meaning "The Brave One". This was a humiliating reverse for Domitian, and so, in 88 AD, another Roman army, under Tettius Iullianus marched down the same route, but in better order. The Dacians, realising that they could not ambush the Romans a second time, gave battle at Tapae. This, second battle at Tapae, ended in a victory for the Romans, but before the Romans could mass troops for an advance on Sarmizegethusa, a revolt flared up in Germania. The governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antoninus Saturninus, had revolted against the Domitian, with the aid of the Chatti tribe. Despite the fact that forces from Germania Inferior, Raetia, and Spain (with the latter army headed by the future Emperor Trajan) responded immediately, it still took them some time to crush the revolt. Domitian, not wishing to fight a war on two fronts, concluded the war with Decebalus with a treaty that was widely regarded as a shameful admission of defeat by the Senate: in exchange for vague Roman authority over Dacia, Decebalus would receive military instructors, craftsmen, weapons (such as artillery) and a subsidy (though some saw it as more of a tribute) of 8 million sesterces a year. Decebalus used this money wisely - he began to fortify his kingdom even more extensively, and expanded it to encompass the territory of the Bastarnae and buy the allegiance of the Roxolani, a Sarmatian tribe that inhabited the area to the east of the Dacian Kingdom. These Sarmatians fought as cataphracts, heavy shock cavalry with both horse and rider covered in armour made from scales of horse hoof, horn, or metal, carrying the long, two-handed kontos lance. These troops were a welcome addition to the Dacian army, whose own cavalry were rather limited in numbers.

Domitian was assassinated in 96 AD, and Nerva was placed on the throne. During his brief reign, Nerva recognised the anger felt among the members of the Senate at the fact that Rome had made peace with the Dacians, and that Rome had not crushed the Dacians - in fact, Dacia was stronger than ever (this truce is regarded as one of the main reasons for Domitian's assassination). He also realised that something would have to be done to satisfy Roman honour with regards to the Dacians. However, as Nerva was an old man (he was 65 when he was placed on the throne), he realised that he would not be able to go on campaign himself. As well as providing 60 million sesterces worth of relief to the poor, and ensuring the expansion of Roman aqueducts and the road system of the Empire, Nerva adopted the popular senator and general Marcus Ulpius Traianus as his heir. When Nerva died in January 98AD, the new Emperor (better known as Trajan) was greeted with massive public support. Though he occasionally indulged in pederasty and was known to drink heavily, he was an exceedingly popular choice with soldiers and civilians, as the vast majority of people appreciated that although he was the most powerful man in the Empire, he never carried such vices to excess. Along with his reputation for fairness, it was Trajan's reputation of military excellence that endeared him to the Romans - he had proven to be an able commander during Domitian's campaigns in Germania, and consequently the legions regarded him as a man fit to lead them.

Soon after being named Emperor, Trajan began planning an invasion of Dacia that would deal with Decebalus once and for all. The Senate enthusiastically approved the new emperor's plans for war, and the Empire began to build up forces on the Danube - Trajan raised two legions specifically for the campaign - Legio II Traiana Fortis, and Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix. In 101 AD, Trajan led his legions, accompanied by thousands of auxiliaries, across the Danube, citing the Dacians' lack of respect for Roman imperial power as the reason for the invasion. The Dacians, once again, decided to meet the Romans at Tapae. However, this time, despite there being upwards of ten Roman legions present (perhaps as many as thirteen legions were deployed in the field), the Dacians inflicted heavy casualties on the Romans before they were forced to withdraw. As a result of these losses, and the fact that winter was drawing near, Trajan decided to delay his assault on Sarmizegethusa until the spring of 102 AD. However, Decebalus used this lull in Roman activity to his advantage, and during the winter, launched an assault on Moesia. The Dacian forces, supported by the Roxolani and Bastarnae, had already lost many troops whilst attempting to cross the frozen Danube - in several places, the ice was too thin for the army to cross, and hundreds were drowned as they fell into the icy water of the Danube. Though the force did manage to cross the Danube largely intact, it was repulsed with huge losses at the battle of Adamclisi by Trajan's army and the troops that remained in Moesia, along with reinforcements from Thrace and Pannonia. Once spring arrived, Trajan resumed his advance on Sarmizegethusa, and Decebalus finally decided to call for an end to the fighting. At the end of the First Dacian War, Decebalus was forced to hand over all Roman deserters and prisoners, as well as any weapons, artillery or standards that they had captured or received as per Domitian's treaties.

However, Trajan did not destroy Dacia, but merely sought to reduce it to the status of client kingdom, to act as a buffer between the Roman Empire and the nomadic tribes of the Steppes to the north-east. He did, however, garrison the northern bank of the Danube, and, after the war ended in 102 AD, ordered his personal architect to construct a large stone bridge over the Danube. This bridge, which was over 1,135 metres in length (and as such, was, for over a thousand years, the longest arch bridge yet built), 19 metres high (measured from the surface of the river), and fifteen metres wide, would be known as Trajan's bridge - twelve of the twenty stone and brick pillars upon which the bridge was built survive to the current day, and as such represent Roman architecture at its zenith. This bridge allowed the Romans to rapidly re-supply and reinforce their troops on the northern side of the Danube, without stopping boats passing up and down the river. The mere size of the bridge would have been an awe-inspiring sight for any Dacian, and a reminder of the technological and logistical power of the Roman Empire. The bridge was finished by 105 AD, but despite this impressive symbol of Roman power, Decebalus soon began to encourage the Dacians to revolt against the Romans, and raid Roman colonies and towns in Moesia. He also began to re-arm his strongholds, and began accepting Roman deserters into his kingdom once more. Trajan's army from the First Dacian War was still deployed on both sides of the Danube, and so he was able to concentrate it quickly. He also summoned reinforcements in the form of detachments, or "vexillations" from several legions stationed throughout the Empire, and thousands of additional auxiliaries, bringing the combined strength of his army to some 200,000 men - such an army had not been assembled by Rome since the days of the Illyrian revolt. This was a testament not only to Trajan's organisational skills, but also the importance which he attached to destroying the Dacians once and for all. He built another, smaller, bridge across the Danube, and this, along with the Danube flotilla, allowed him to rapidly enter Dacia with his vast army.

Resistance was fierce and desperate, but swiftly overcome by the vastly superior Roman forces. Soon, only the Dacian capital of Sarmizegethusa remained. The Romans besieged the city, and although their initial direct assault failed, to breach the walls, the Romans built a wall of circumvallation around the city, and bombarded it with their artillery. The Romans then destroyed the water pipes of Sarmizegethusa, and with their water supplies gone, the defenders were forced into submission. The Romans entered the city and burned it to the ground. Though Decebalus and many of his retainers and followers escaped the siege, they were pursued and caught by Roman cavalry. Realising that if he surrendered, he would be taken to Rome in chains, paraded through the streets and then garrotted as part of Trajan's triumph, the Dacian king committed suicide. Though several of the King's closest kinsmen did the same, one, named Bicilis begged for his life, and offered to reveal to the Romans the location of Decebalus' buried treasure, which had been hidden in the bed of the River Sergetia. The Romans, under Bicilis' instructions, found the buried treasure, and were amazed at the sheer amount of wealth that belonged to the Dacian king: 165,000 kilograms of pure gold, and 331,000 kilograms of silver. This, along with Dacia's vast mineral wealth and good agricultural land, meant that the campaign had more than paid for itself, despite the huge numbers of troops involved.

With this wealth, was able to finance a massive building project in Rome, constructing the Forum that bears his name, which was a gargantuan public building of marble and gold. Today, only the central column remains, and on that column the story of the Emperor's campaigns in Dacia is told, spiralling upwards around the column. Trajan's Column provides almost all the narrative evidence of his campaigns in Dacia, which has largely been confirmed by archaeological evidence. Trajan also constructed a new capital for the province of Dacia, around 25 miles from the original capital, and named it Colonia Ulpia Traiana Dacica Augusta Sarmizegetuza. Although Dacia was only to be part of the Roman Empire for just under 160 years (the province was abandoned to the Goths by the Emperor Aurelian in 275 AD), it was highly urbanised. There were eight colonies ("coloniae") in Dacia, as well as several other large Roman settlements. Almost all of these sprang up around legionary and auxiliary fortresses and forts. The province also had an excellent road network, allowing the mineral and agricultural wealth of the new province to be exploited with maximum efficiency, and also providing the garrison of the province with a means of quickly moving to repel raids by tribes outside Roman Dacia, such as the Carpi, the Free Dacians, and the Bastarnae. Despite the fact that Hadrian abandoned some territory to the east and west of Dacia to the Roxolani and Iazyges respectively, the province's infrastructure was largely unchanged. Dacia, despite its initially reduced population, soon proved to be a useful recruiting ground for the Roman army.

The Dacians were a tough people, and made excellent infantrymen. Several cohorts had been recruited into the Roman army by the time of Hadrian - Cohors I Aelia Dacorum Milliaria (founded by Hadrian, stationed in Britannia), Cohors II Augusta Dacorum Equitata Milliaria (stationed in Pannonia), Cohors I Ulpia Dacorum (founded by Trajan, stationed in Syria), and Cohors III Dacorum (also serving in Syria). There is also some evidence of Dacian cohorts serving in at least one internal province, but the epigraphic evidence is scarce. These Dacian auxiliaries are good infantrymen, combining Roman discipline with the ruggedness of their ancestors. Despite the province's recent addition to the Empire, the Dacian cohorts are just as capable and loyal as any other auxiliary units in the empire. Although they have exchanged the traditional falx for the standard issue Roman gladius, these troops are still very effective against enemy infantry, because of their discipline, their courage, and their equipment, which consist of a solid bronze helmet, good quality scale armour, large oval "clipeus" shield, a cluster of javelins and the 20-inch long gladius. Their fighting style is consistent with most other Roman infantry - enemies are pelted with javelins, before the Romans charge into combat, and using their large shields to batter their enemies and their swords in quick stabbing motions into the opposing infantrymen's faces or guts, they relentlessly carve a path through the enemy ranks, whilst holding their own formation to present a wall of shields against the enemy. In attack or defence, they are good, solid, dependable troops, and as such will prove very useful to any Roman commander.

Equipment:

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Cohors Ituraeorum

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

Though Syria was more famous for the archers it provided for the Roman army, regular infantry units were raised there, such as the Cohortes Hamiorum, Damascenorum, and Ituraeorum. They are armed with a gladius, which is the standard infantry sword of the Roman army, and a cluster of javelins. For protection, they carry a large oval shield called a clipeus, and wear scale armour and a bronze helmet. Like most Roman heavy infantry, these troops are generally best employed against enemy infantry, where their gladii and large shields come into their own. Historically, infantry units from Syria served in Egypt, Mauretania, Armenia, Germania and Cappadocia, as well as in their home province, and several Syrian units, including Cohors I Hamiorum Milliaria and Cohors I Ituraeorum were awarded Roman citizenship as a reward for their valorous deeds, and carried the suffix Civium Romanorum thereafter.

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Cohors Thracum

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The Roman province of Thracia was annexed into the Empire by Claudius in 46 AD, after having been indirectly ruled as a client kingdom since the reign of Augustus. As some Thracian units bear the name "Augusta" in their titles (such as Cohors III Augusta Thracum), it is believed that recruitment of Thracians into the Roman army began under Augustus, as the Thracians were regarded as fierce warriors, and the Romans eagerly sought to harness their fighting prowess. Thracia proved to be a very fertile recruiting ground, as many auxiliary cohorts were raised there (as well as over a tenth of the Empire's cavalry alae and, surprisingly, many regiments of archers,or "cohortes sagittariorum"). The infantry cohorts raised in Thracia were generally well regarded as tough fighters, and consequently they were sent all over the Empire - there are records of Thracian infantry cohorts in Britannia, Germania, the Alpine provinces of Rhaetia and Noricum, Pannonia, and Syria, as well as the neighbouring provinces of Moesia Inferior and Superior, and later, after Trajan's reign, Dacia. Their presence in Syria is especially noteworthy, as several cohorts carry the suffix "Syriaca" such as Cohortes I, II, III, and IV Syriaca, implying heavy campaigning in the region, most likely against the Parthians. It is also worth noting that several cohorts carry the suffix "civium Romanorum", having been awarded Roman citizenship for extraordinary performance in battle, including Cohortes I and III Thracum Civium Romanorum. There are also several infantry units bearing the suffix "Veterana", showing that these troops had fought in many battles, such as Cohortes II and III Thracum Veterana. These auxiliary troops are armed in much the same way as legionnaires, carrying a gladius and a few javelins, protected by chainmail and a helmet, but carrying the large oval clipeus shield rather than the legionary scutum. As a result, these auxiliaries fight in a similar way to their legionary counterparts - launching a volley of javelins at the enemy before charging home with their gladii. Like most other Roman troops, they excel at cutting through enemy infantry, but are solid and dependable enough to stand against most enemies.

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Cohors Italica Voluntariorum c.R.

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

It was near the end of Augustus' reign that the Roman army faced acute manpower shortages following two serious military catastrophes - first, the Dalmatian revolt of 6 AD, where auxiliaries and tribesmen from Dalmatia and nearby Illyria revolted against their Roman commanders while being assembled for operations in Germania Magna. It took the Romans three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, and not long after operations ceased in 9 AD, news came of a second disaster - three legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus had been ambushed and annihilated in Germania Magna in a three day battle that was to be known as the "Clades Variana" - the Varus Disaster, resulting in the loss of all of Rome's possessions east of the Rhine river.. During the years between the Dalmatian revolt and Varus' defeat, and for several months afterwards, Augustus, desperate for additional manpower and expecting the Germans to pour south and west over the Alps and into Italy, emancipated slaves that volunteered themselves in exchange for 25 years of military service. Some cohorts were formed of Roman citizens who volunteered en masse. Augustus did not want to have these former slaves in his legions (and neither, in all likelihood, would the proud legionnaires have tolerated their presence), and so he formed the Cohortes Voluntariorum. As many as fifty of these cohorts were raised in this manner, and they were eventually posted all over the Empire - many served in Germania, to where they were doubtless rushed by the Palatium to reinforce the Rhine frontier soon after the Varus Disaster. Many others served in Dalmatia during the revolt, and others were used to garrison Spain. The rest were scattered throughout the Empire, in Pannonia, Cappadocia, and some units also served in Syria, where one, Cohors II Italica Voluntariorum Civium Romanorum served as a unit of archers, and as such gained the title "Sagittariorum". Despite their somewhat ad-hoc formation during a time of crisis, these cohorts actually enjoyed a status distinct from that of the other Auxiliary units. They were paid as much as legionnaires and received the money usually given as a gift by successive emperors to the legions and Praetorian Guard, and they were usually well regarded by provincial commanders, as they, like the legionnaires they fought alongside, were Roman citizens, and thus their loyalty was unquestionable. They are equipped with the standard panoply of the Roman auxiliary infantryman - a gladius, a cluster of javelins, and a large oval clipeus, with chainmail armour and a sturdy helmet. These troops are ideal for engaging enemy infantry, but being well disciplined Roman infantry, they are capable of holding their own against most enemies.

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Cohors I Flavia Hispanorum

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The Romans first began to occupy the Iberian Peninsula when they landed at Emporion in 218 B.C. under Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio (the latter being the father of Scipio Africanus) during the opening moves of the Second Punic War. While Hannibal was fighting in Italy, the Scipiones and their troops (including large numbers of Celtiberian tribesmen) were slowly but steadily taking weakening Carthage's hold on her Iberian territories. There were setbacks, such as at Cissa in 218 BC, and the death of both Cornelius and Publius in 211 BC when their Celtiberian troops deserted after being bribed by Hasdrubal Barca, younger brother of Hannibal, but following Scipio Africanus' appointment as commander of Roman forces in Hispania in 210 BC, the Roman's possessions in Hispania expanded dramatically, with Africanus' successful surprise attack on Carthago Nova in 209. The city was the provincial capital of Carthage's Iberian holdings, and, with one of the best natural harbours in the western Mediterranean. Scipio treated the citizens of the city with great leniency, and released the hostages taken by the Carthaginian tribes from the nearby Celtiberian tribes who were being held in the city. This helped to win over a large number of tribes and persuade them to ally with Rome. In 206 BC, the Carthaginians, rejuvenated and reorganised led by Hasdrubal Gisgo and Mago Barca (brother of Hasdrubal and Hannibal), attempted to defeat the Roman army at Illipa, but were themselves defeated, and they retreated to Gades. After a brief revolt by the Iberians against Roman rule in 205 BC was crushed, the Carthaginians abandoned Hispania to assist Hannibal's forces in Italy. At this point, Rome controlled the entire southern and eastern Spanish coast.

Following the conclusion of the Second Punic War, Rome's Spanish holdings were divided into two provinces, in 197 BC - Hispania Citerior (Nearer Spain) and Hispania Ulterior. Progress to conquer the rest of the peninsula was slow but methodical, with Lusitania falling by 179 BC. There was a rebellion in Lusitania against Roman rule in 155 BC, which lasted intermittently until 139 BC, when the last rebel leader, Viriathus, was murdered in his sleep by some of his companions, whom the Romans had bribed.

The central area of Hispania, known as Celtiberia, was largely subjugated by 179 BC, but the Celtiberian peoples continued to resist, around the city of Numantia, which was taken by troops under Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (adoptive grandson of Scipio Africanus) at the end of a war that lasted from 143 BC until 133 BC. Around this time, Consul Decimus Junius Brutus led an expedition to Gallaecia in the north-west of the Peninsula, and succeeded in defeating the tribes there. Finally, in 123 BC, the Romans set up a colony of 3,000 Hispanic Roman citizens on the Balearic Isles, guaranteeing Rome's access the slingers for which the islands were famous across the ancient world. With Rome's hold on Celtiberia solidifying, and Romanization in the areas nearer the coast progressing apace, most of Roman Hispania was now peaceful. Further campaigns against some of the Lusitanian tribes were necessary, but by and large, the province was largely peaceful until the time of the civil wars. Quintus Sertorius, on the run from the dictator Sulla, continued his war against the Roman government from Hispania from 83 BC until he was assassinated in 72 BC. The province was also the scene of some of the opening engagements of the war between Caesar and the Senate, as Caesar moved to eliminate Pompey's base of support in the province, and in 49 BC, Caesar defeated Senatorial forces at Ilerda, crushing Pompey's legions there. Hispania was also the scene of the last battle of the civil war, as Caesar destroyed the last senatorial forces arrayed against him at Munda in 45 BC.

The last campaigns fought in Spain by the Romans were fought between 29 BC and 19 BC, as the Emperor Augustus sought to finally gain control over north-east Hispania, the homeland of the Cantabri. After a long campaign and a few scattered revolts, the area was declared pacified in 16 BC. The Romans kept a legionary garrison in the province, but it was generally not heavily garrisoned. Despite the fact that large numbers of citizens had settled there (including legionary veterans) and that some Romanised native cities were granted Roman citizenship (allowing Caesar and Pompey to recruit several legions in the province, including Legiones VI Ferrata, VII Claudia, VIII Augusta, IX Hispana and X Gemina Equestris) there were still very many non-citizens in the province, from which the auxiliaries were recruited.\n\nThough Iberians from many tribes fought under Roman command in almost all of the wars that the Romans fought on the Peninsula, and the Roman legions were commonly accompanied by the famed Balearic slingers wherever they went, it was not until the reign of Augustus and the formalization of the auxilia that troops from the Iberian Peninsula, infantry and cavalry alike, began to be used extensively throughout the Empire.

The cohorts were named either by the region or the tribe from which they came, so apart from the Cohortes Hispanorum, there were the cohortes Asturum, Ausetanorum, Cantabrorum, Callaecorum, Celtiberorum, Lemavorum, Lucensium, Vardulorum, and Vasconum from Hispania, and Cohortes Lusitanorum and Braracorum from Lusitania. Several cohorts have mixed names, such as Cohors I Ligurum et Hispanorum Civium Romanorum. This indicates that two under-strength cohorts, one of Ligurians (which was an Alpine cohort, as Liguria itself was part of Italy and all Italians had been granted citizenship by Gaius Marius), and one of Spanish troops, were merged to create one full-strength cohort. The combination seems to have been a fortunate one, as the unit was granted Roman Citizenship at some point after its creation. This conference of citizenship upon a unit was usually only given for valorous deeds performed by the unit as a whole. Other units, such as Cohors I Asturum et Callaecorum were formed by recruiting troops from two neighbouring tribes within Hispania. This unit was posted to Mauretania, in Northern Africa, where it formed the garrison of the province along with other auxiliary troops, with the nearest legion, Legio III Augusta, stationed at Lambaesis in neighbouring Africa Proconsularis. In fact, the garrison of Africa, Mauretania and Numidia contained many units from Hispania and Lusitania - there was one Spanish cavalry unit, the Ala III Asturum, and (including Cohors I Asturum et Callaecorum) six units of infantry from the Iberian Peninsula, namely the Cohortes III Asturum Civium Romanorum Equitata, I Flavia Hispanorum, II Hispanorum Civium Romanorum Milliaria, I Lemavorum Civium Romanorum, and VII Lusitanorum Equitata. This was probably because of the relative proximity of southern Hispania to Mauretania, and so the troops there could be re-supplied with recruits from their home provinces with ease, making it easier to maintain a barrier of ethnicity between the units and the locals, which was regarded as important in order to avoid a reoccurrence of the Illyrian and Batavian revolts, where auxiliary cohorts stationed in their home regions revolted when their homelands rebelled against Roman rule. Note that three of these cohorts are designated "equitata" or "part-mounted", meaning that these three 480-man strong cohorts each had 120 cavalrymen (formed into four "turmae" or squadrons of 30, each led by a decurion) permanently attached to them. These mounted troops were very useful for patrolling the desert frontiers of Roman Africa and repelling the occasional raid mounted by nomadic Berbers that lived on and beyond the Roman frontier.

Elsewhere in the Empire, units from the Iberian Peninsula were stationed in Britannia, Germania Inferior and Superior, Pannonia, Moesia Inferior and Superior, with particularly large numbers of Spanish troops present in Dacia and Syria.\n\nIt is also worth noting that one of the two attested "scutata" ("equipped with the scutum") cohorts was from Hispania; Cohors II Hispanorum Scutata Civium Romanorum, stationed in Dacia (the other being Cohors II Thebaeorum Scutata Civium Romanorum, stationed in Aegyptus). These scutata units were equipped with the rectangular legionary scutum instead of the standard oval clipeus usually issued to auxiliary heavy infantry. The reasons for the formation of these units is unclear - both attested units were comprised of Roman citizens, however, and may have been given the shields more typically associated with Rome's citizen-legionnaires to symbolize this.

The only unit from the Iberian Peninsula attested in Aegyptus has a particularly interesting title - Cohors I Augusta Praetoria Lusitanorum Equitata. Egypt held a special position as a province - after Augustus became Emperor, he mandated that it be governed by an equestrian magistrate rather than a senator, as it was Rome's breadbasket, and it would thus be a temptation for a senatorial proconsul to use this to his advantage in a bid for the throne. Though the evidence is tenuous at best, these troops may have been given the title "Augusta Praetoria" as an indication of the fact that the cohort there was personally loyal to the Emperor alone, and were stationed there to keep an eye on the province's governor, and to take any steps necessary to prevent sedition or rebellion.

These troops from Hispania are tough, disciplined heavy infantry, armed with the gladius, a short, stabbing sword originating from their homeland (the full title for the Roman gladius is in fact the "gladius Hispaniensis" or "Spanish sword"), and now the standard infantry weapon of the Roman army. Their swords are complemented by the large oval "clipeus" shield, common amongst the Empire's auxilia, and a few javelins. Protected by good quality helmets and chain mail (in Latin, lorica hamata), they fight in much the same way as their legionary brethren. They are dependable troops capable of forming the centre or flanks of a battle line, greeting an enemy attack with a hail of javelins before fighting the enemy to a standstill, then driving them back, punching with their shields and stabbing with their gladii. They are fine soldiers, and the equal of most of the troops that Barbarian warlords or Eastern tyrants can throw at them. In this respect, they are useful to any Roman army, whether it be on campaign in foreign lands, or garrisoning Roman territory.

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Cohors V Delmatarum c.R.

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The Romans' involvement in Illyria began in 229 BC, when a large number of Illyrian tribes were united under one queen, Queen Teuta. The Romans sent an envoy named Coruncanius on a diplomatic mission to Teuta, but upon his arrival, the Roman envoy was arrested and executed on Teuta's orders. At this point, pirate attacks on Italian ships under Roman protection across the Adriatic Sea intensified. This prompted the Romans to send an army under consuls Lucius Postumis Albinus and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus to break the Illyrian's grip over the Greek cities around Apollonia, such as Epidamnus, Corcyra, and Pharos. The Romans established a protectorate over these Greek towns, and also provided financial support to Demetrius of Pharos in order to provide a counter to Teuta's power in Illyria. This war, which ended in 228 BC, would later be called the First Illyrian War.

The Second Illyrian War was similarly short lived - in 220 BC, Demetrius of Pharos, who was, up until that point, a faithful Roman ally, launched a fleet which he had slowly been building up over the years since the end of the First Illyrian War, against the city of Pylos, which was nominally a Roman protectorate. After capturing some of the city's ships, and roving the Adriatic, he decided to send some of his ships across the Adriatic to raid Italian ports. With the Illyrian forces divided, a combined Roman army and fleet crossed the Adriatic and successfully captured the Illyrian city of Dimale, described by Polybius as the strongest of the Illyrian's cities, due to the fact that the city was built on two hills, with a citadel on each connected by walls. From there, the Roman fleet sailed to Pharos, forcing Demetrius to flee from his capital to Macedon, where he remained as a councillor at the court of Philip V. Normally, Rome would have pursued him, but in 219 BC the Romans had far bigger problems to worry about - the Romans were struggling to pacify the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul, and war was looming with Carthage as tensions grew in the Iberian Peninsula.

Following his victory over the Romans at Lake Trasimeno in 217 BC, Hannibal sent a letter suggesting the formation of an alliance between Philip of Macedon and the Carthaginian Senate to Philip V of Macedon. Philip only showed the letter to Demetrius, who, sensing the opportunity to regain his kingdom, urged Philip to accept the invitation, and declare war on Rome. After Philip launched two failed attempts at invading Illyria by sea, and suffering defeat outside Apollonia, his third attempt made some headway, but the war was shifting to Greece, and in the end, the First Macedonian War was merely intended by the Romans to ensure that Hannibal didn't receive any real assistance from Macedon during his campaign in Italy. When the war ended in 204 BC, the Romans were not completely satisfied with the result, but it was enough to know that it helped to defeat Hannibal. However, war soon broke out again in 200 BC. At the end of the second Macedonian War in 197 BC after the decisive Roman victory at Cynoscephalae, there was a lull in the fighting, and Rome turned her eye from Illyria.

War was to break out again in 171 BC, and this time, the Illyrians were directly involved. Initially, the Illyrians under their King Gentius declared for the Romans, but in 169 they defected to side with Perseus of Macedon, son of Philip V, who had died in 179 BC. He arrested two Roman legates, and sacked the cities of Apollonia and Dyrrhachium, which were Roman protectorates. It was however, a futile exercise: after Perseus's defeat and surrender at Pydna at the hands of Lucius Aemilius Paulus, and the collapse of the Macedonian Kingdom in 168 BC, the Romans turned their attention to the Illyrians, and in the same year, Gentius was defeated at Scodra, and in 167 BC, he was taken to Rome in chains. Rome now considered the Illyrian coast a province of Rome. Though the coastal cities and ports of the province were definitively under Roman control, it would take the Romans many hard years of campaigning to finally conquer the remaining Illyrian tribes, and the tribes of Dalmatia, further inland. Over the next one hundred years, the Romans' grip on Greece and the Balkans tightened, as did their grip on Illyria. In 59 BC, Julius Caesar gained the governorship of Illyria, along with Cisalpine and Transalpine Gauls. The borders of the province were ill-defined, however, until Augustus became the first Emperor of the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Augustus oversaw the official establishment of the province of Illyricum. Under the reign of Rome's first emperor, the border of Illyricum expanded, until, at the end of the Pannonian wars, (12-9 BC), the borders of Illyricum reached the River Danube.

During the years following the conclusion of the Pannonian campaign, Rome's expansion continued apace, primarily in Germania. However, such campaigns were not without their difficulties, and so, in 6 AD, the Romans gave orders for a "dilectus" or a levy to ensure that there were adequate reserves of manpower available to the Roman army. Several auxiliary cohorts of Daesitiates, led by a man known only as Bato the Deasitiate, while being gathered together before being sent to Germany to fight under the command of the Emperor's stepson, Tiberius, mutinied. The nearby communities of Dalmatians joined them, and following the defeat of a hastily assembled Roman force sent against them, the Daesitiates were joined by the Breuci tribe, who also provided several auxiliary cohorts to the Roman army. The governor of Moesia, Caecina Severus, led Roman troops from Moesia on a second counter-attack that was better organised than the first. This army clashed with the rebels at the battle of Sirmium, and defeated them, but suffered heavy losses in the process, which halted their progress temporarily. Seeing this, more and more Illyrian communities joined the rebels. Rome was now in danger of losing control of not just the recently-conquered territory of the Pannonii, but the entire province of Illyricum - given the fact that these tribes all spoke Illyrian and were culturally very similar, it was obvious that the average Illyrian tribesman would not hesitate in siding with the rebels against Roman rule. If Illyricum fell, then the gateway would be open for the rebel invasion of Italy. Realising this, Augustus summoned overwhelming military force to the area, drawing off troops from the campaigns in Germania and forcing Augustus to form around 50 Cohortes Voluntariorum Civium Romanorum, or "Cohorts of Volunteers, Roman Citizens", either from volunteer citizens, or slaves that were bought, emancipated, trained and equipped as auxiliaries. These troops, along with fifteen legions, one hundred cohorts of regular auxiliaries, and the large numbers of troops provided by the ruler of the client kingdom of Thrace, King Rhoemetacles I, totalled around 200,000 men. It still took this enormous Roman and Thracian force three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt. The last rebel tribes capitulated in early September, 9AD, apparently just a few days before the Roman army commanded by Publius Quinctilius Varus was ambushed and annihilated in the dark forests of Germania by Germanic tribesmen under Arminius. Though Augustus was distraught by the loss of his three legions, the Palatium was relieved that the Roman army had managed to crush the Illyrian and Dalmatian tribes before they could realise the Romans' fears that they would form an alliance with Arminius.

Following the suppression of the revolt and the stabilisation of Rome's frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube, the province of Illyricum was dissolved and separated into two provinces - Pannonia Inferior, which lay immediately to the south of the Danube, and Dalmatia, which lay on the Illyrian coast. Romanization soon followed. There were already large cities such as Salonae and Segestica within the borders of the unified province of Illyricum, and these cities, along with the small towns that sprung up outside Roman forts and fortresses (known as "vici" - singular "vicus") were the hub of the process of converting the warlike Illyrians into civilised inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The Via Egnatia, which had been constructed in the 2nd Century BC, began at Dyrrhachium, which was a direct Roman road from the Illyrian coast to the city of Byzantion in Thrace (which later became Constantinople - the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire). Recruitment into the Roman army began soon after the Illyrian and Dalmatian tribes capitulated - no doubt the defeated tribes were required on the terms of their surrender to provide troops for the Roman Empire. This was fortunate for the Romans, and, eventually, proved beneficial to the Illyrians as well. The Romans began to recruit large numbers of Dalmatians, Pannonians, and other Illyrian tribesmen into their army once more, but the vast majority of them were stationed outside of their home provinces - the Romans learned from revolts like the Illyrian, and later, the Batavian revolt, that it was better to keep troops stationed away from their homelands in order to prevent mutinies amongst the local garrison inciting civil insurrection, or vice versa.

By the reign of Hadrian, there were roughly twenty five cohorts from the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia scattered all over the Empire. They were all named after the tribes or the province from which they came, with the majority of the cohorts named either Cohors Breucorum (of which there were seven), Cohors Delmaturum (of which there were six), or Cohors Pannoniorum (of which there were five). There were also some cohorts from smaller tribes, such as Cohors I Aelia Athoitarum (stationed in the relatively peaceful province of Thrace), Cohors I Montanorum I Equitata (stationed in Pannonia), Cohors I Montanorum Civium Romanorum (stationed in Syria), and Cohors II Varcianorum Equitata (stationed in Germania Inferior). The remaining cohorts were either a mixture of two different tribes (such as Cohors I Pannoniorum et Delmaturum, and Cohors Latobicorum et Varcianorum), or the result of the merging of two cohorts from different parts of the Empire (such as in the case of Cohors V Gallorum et Pannoniorum - a cohort of Gauls that was later joined by Pannonians, perhaps to combine two under-strength cohorts to form one cohort). Nine (over a third) of these cohorts were Cohortes Equitatae, i.e. they had a cavalry detachment of 120 cavalrymen (divided into four "turmae" or squadrons each led by a decurion) if the cohort was a Cohors Quingenaria ("Five Hundred-strong cohort"), or 240 cavalrymen (divided into eight turmae) if the cohort was a Cohors Milliaria ("One Thousand-strong Cohort"). Six of the Cohortes Equitatae were Cohortes Quingenariae, and the other two (Cohors I Delmaturum Equitata Milliaria and Cohors I Ulpia Pannoniorum Equitata Milliaria- the "Ulpia" in the second unit's title indicating that it was founded by Trajan, perhaps in preparation for his Dacian campaigns) were Cohortes Milliariae. Interestingly, both of these units were stationed in their home provinces (Dalmatia and Pannonia). However, the fact that a cohors Equitata Milliaria would be stationed in the largely peaceful internal province of Dalmatia, rather than on one of the more vulnerable frontier provinces of the empire (for example neighbouring Pannonia), is odd, especially when one considers that a cohors equitata milliaria was the largest single unit of troops present within a province, excluding a legion (given its nominal complement of 1,040 soldiers - 800 infantrymen and 240 cavalrymen). Six of the units from Dalmatia and Pannonia that were around during the reign of Hadrian had been awarded Roman citizenship by the end of the second century AD. These were Cohors I Montanorum Civium Romanorum (stationed in Syria), Cohors I Breucorum Civium Romanorum and Cohors V Breucorum Civium Romanorum Equitata (stationed in the Alpine provinces of Raetia and Noricum), Cohors VII Breucorum Civium Romanum Equitata, (stationed in Pannonia), Cohors III Delmaturum Civium Romanorum Equitata Pia Fidelis (stationed in Germania Superior - the unit was granted the title "Pia Fidelis" sometime during the reign of Trajan), and Cohors V Delmaturum Civium Romanorum (stationed in Mauretania - granted Roman citizenship by Hadrian in 122 AD). Most frontier provinces of the Empire seem to have had at least one cohort of Illyrians (the exceptions being Moesia Inferior, Dacia and Cappadocia), but Germania Inferior and Britannia had the lion's share with five cohorts apiece. Britannia's garrison was always large because of the fact that some parts of the province were always uneasy (such as Wales), and the northern border of the province (protected by Hadrian's Wall, and later, by the Antonine Wall) was constantly under pressure because of Caledonian raids. Germania Inferior, on the other hand, was occasionally subjected to raids from Germanic tribesmen across the Rhine, so a strong garrison was necessary to protect the large cities within the Roman province, such as Colonia Claudia (modern Cologne).

The fact that almost a quarter of the Illyrian cohorts were granted Roman citizenship as a reward for valorous deeds in combat speaks volumes for their fighting prowess, and goes some of the way to explaining why it took three years for the Romans to crush the rebellion of such hardy men. Their well-made equipment is fairly standard for Roman auxiliary infantry - a large, oval clipeus shield, a bronze helmet, chainmail armour, a couple of javelins, and the standard infantry sword of the Roman army - the gladius. Short and very sharp, the gladius complements the disciplined fighting style of these soldiers perfectly. Just like their legionary counterparts, these troops will throw their javelins before moving into contact with the enemy, using their shields' bosses to punch the enemy and then stabbing them with their swords in an almost mechanical fashion, before repeating the action as necessary. In this way, these troops will cut through most enemy infantry, or, at the very least, halt their charge, holding their formation under pressure thanks to their determination, discipline, and determination. They are an excellent asset for any Roman commander, whether he is organising the defence of a fort on the far-flung frontiers of the Empire, crushing rebels within the Empire, or bringing new land into the Roman fold - these troops are tough and adaptable enough for almost any engagement.

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Cohors V Gallorum:

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The Romans' first foray into Gaul occurred in 121 BC, when Rome entered into negotiations with the Greek colony Massalia (modern Marseilles) concerning the construction of a road through Massalian territory from Italy to their now significant holdings in the Iberian Peninsula, to facilitate trade and troop transport. To this end, they negotiated the purchase of a small strip of land along the southern Gallic coast, and in return they would protect Massalian territory from Gallic raids. Rome had been trading with the wealthy city for quite some time, and the Massalians were encouraged by the prospect of Roman and Italian merchants visiting their city as they travelled between Hispania and Italia. The Massalians therefore agreed to the bargain. Thus was the Roman province of Gallia Transalpina ("Gaul beyond the Alps") born. Within this small strip of land, however, not only did the Romans build the road that they required, but they also founded the city of Narbo Martius (modern Narbonne, from which, the name of this part of Gaul, "Gallia Narbonensis" would be derived), in 118 BC. This city became a trading competitor with Massalia, but Massalia was still a wealthy city until it sided with Pompey and the Senate during the Civil war and was taken by Caesar.

This new province outside of the protection of the Alps was referred to by the Romans as "Provincia Nostra" ("Our Province") or simply "Provincia" ("The Province") as it was Rome's first foray into Gaul beyond the Alps, and involved the foundation of a city rather than the annexation or conquest of a pre-existing settlement. For protection, the Romans relied not only on legionnaires but troops from local allied tribes to protect their province - the Aedui were amongst Rome's most loyal allies in this regard, as well as some troops from Massalia as well.\n\nBy the time Julius Caesar was granted governorship of Gallia Transalpina in 58 BC, when the previous governor, Metellus Celer, unexpectedly died, he was well placed to repay the huge debts that he had accumulated during his rise through the ranks of the Senate. As a member of the First Triumvirate, along with Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, and Marcus Licinius Crassus, he had already secured an unprecedented five years of governorship in Gallia Cisalpania and Illyricum, and with them, four veteran Spanish legions - Legiones VII, VIII, IX, and X. Caesar had already commanded these troops with distinction during his governorship of Lusitania in 61 BC, and knew that he could rely on them. He also had the authority to raise legions and levy auxiliaries as he saw fit to defend his provinces. He used troops from tribal allies as well as the traditional auxiliary troops that accompanied the legions, such as Cretan archers and Balearic slingers, and he also recruited Germanic troops from across the Rhine to provide him with a loyal bodyguard of shock cavalry and some light infantry as well. However, he was not averse to recruiting Gauls into his legions. In one instance, Caesar created Legio V from Gallic volunteers in Gallia Transalpania. This legion was nicknamed "Alaudae" or "The Larks" because of the distinctive crests on the soldiers' helmets. What made this legion remarkable is the fact that none of its members were Roman citizens. Though the Gallic troops were given citizenship upon enlistment, it was a controversial move, and several more conservative Senators strongly objected to it. This would, however, not be the last time that Gauls were brought into the Roman army.

Over the next seven years, Caesar and his troops succeeded in conquering all of Gaul, in a war that he proclaimed merely to be pre-emptive defence of the Republic. Most historians agree, however, that he was simply looking for money and glory, things that his Gallic campaigns brought in truly staggering amounts. Caesar was also the first Roman to bridge the river Rhine - long seen as the dividing line between the Celts of Gaul and the Germanic tribes east of the river. Back in Rome, this feat of engineering was praised as much as the fact that Roman troops had actually invaded Germania. Caesar was also the first Roman to land in Britain - he invaded twice, in 55 and 54 BC. Despite Vercingetorix's heroic rebellion in 52 BC, within a year, Roman authority in Gaul was absolute. The revolt was crushed at the Siege of Alesia in the same year, and though there were sporadic rebellions until mid 1st Century AD (including during the Batavian Revolt of 69-70AD, where several Gallic and Belgic units and the tribes from which they came defected to join Julius Civilis and his Germanic troops), most of Gaul began to undergo Romanization. It is also worth noting that the Gallic auxiliaries accompanying Varus' ill-fated expedition into the Teutoburg Forest defected to fight alongside the Germanic tribesmen under Arminius when they realised that the Roman army was in a hopeless position. However, with these two exceptions, the Gallic auxiliaries proved very loyal and capable troops.

Gaul was particularly suited to Romanization due to the fact that the Gallic tribes often had large, well developed towns called "oppida" (singular "oppidum") by the Romans - these provided the Romans with the foundations for their program of urbanization. These oppida were often simply rebuilt in the roman style with buildings in stone, with all the amenities of any other Roman provincial town - baths, theatres, and, as the centrepiece of every town, a Forum. Despite the Romanization of the oppida via grants of citizenship and building projects, and the settling of legionary veterans in colonies across the provinces of Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica, there remained large numbers of non-citizen in Gaul, who were recruited into the auxilia. Gaul had a long-standing cavalry tradition, and this was reflected in the fact that two fifths of the Empire's cavalry auxilia were recruited from Gaul, with Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Aquitania providing a third of the Empire's total cavalry strength. However, Gaul's large population meant that there were plenty of non-citizens to serve as auxiliary infantry, and so dozens of auxiliary regiments were raised there. There were many cohorts with the generic title "Cohors Gallorum", many of which have secondary titles, such as Cohors III Gallorum Felix ("The Third Cohort of Lucky Gauls"), or those whose secondary titles indicate where they fought, such as II Gallorum Dacica, Cohors II Gallorum Macedonica Equitata, and Cohors II Gallorum Pannonica. Some, like Cohors IV Gallorum, were awarded Roman citizenship for their valorous deeds in battle. Owing to the Gauls' excellent cavalry tradition, several of the Cohortes Gallorum were designated "Cohors Equitata", such as Cohortes IV, V and VII Gallorum Equitata and Cohors II Veterana Equitata. Cohortes Equitatae were "part mounted" - in other words, these infantry units had cavalrymen permanently attached to them. Being Cohortes Equitatae Quingenariae ("Five hundred-strong part-mounted cohorts"), these cohorts had 480 infantrymen in six centuries of eighty men, like a normal infantry cohort, and 120 cavalrymen, organised into four "turmae" (squadrons) of thirty, each led by a Decurion.

There were, of course, other cohorts named after the tribes from which they came, such as Cohors I Biturigum, Cohors I Aelia Gaesatorum Sagittariorum Milliaria ("The First Aelian Cohort of Gaesati Archers, One Thousand-Strong" - the "Aelia" showing that the Cohort was founded by the Emperor Hadrian), the five Cohortes Lingonum (of which, I-IV were Cohortes Equitatae), Cohors I Helvetiorum, Cohors I Menapiorum, and Cohors I Morinorum. There were also the Cohortes Aquitanorum, who, as members of the Aquitani tribe, did not speak Celtic, but a non-Indo-European language that is now extinct, but was similar to Old Basque. There were at least five cohorts of Aquitani by the reign of Hadrian - Cohors I Aquitanorum, Cohors I Aquitanorum Veterana, and Cohortes II, III and IV Aquitanorum Equitata. The cohorts from Gaul served in Britannia, Germania Superior, the Alpine provinces of Raetia and Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia Superior, Dacia, Syria and Africa, with the largest concentrations in Britannia and Dacia.

These Gallic troops are tough fighters - they are, after all, descended from the men that sacked Rome in 390 BC, and fought Julius Caesar for control of Gaul for so long (and even defeated him at Gergovia in 52 BC). As such, they are excellent melee fighters, but their ferocity in battle is tempered with Roman discipline. The Gauls were masters of metal-working, and so the auxiliaries from Gaul are well equipped - they wear a good, solid helmet (the design of which was inspired by the Gaul's own helmets), and chainmail (originally adopted from the Gauls by the Romans). As weapons, they carry a spear, as many of their forefathers did for centuries, and a cluster of javelins, with which they may bombard the enemy before closing to fight hand-to-hand. They also carry the large oval "clipeus" shield, which is standard issue for most auxiliary infantry. They fight in a manner very similar to their legionary - hurling their javelins at the enemy before closing and then letting their spears and swords do the work, using their shields as weapons almost as much as their spears. They are particularly useful against enemy cavalry, as their spears and shields make them a nightmare for cavalry to deal with, as no horse will want to charge at a line of disciplined infantry with spearpoints raised. Like most Roman footsoldiers, they are also very capable of cutting through enemy infantry, and as such, are an excellent addition to a Roman commander's force.

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Cohors I Aquitanorum Veterana

Cohors prima Aquitanorum Veterana ("1st veteran Cohort of Aquitani") was a Roman auxiliary infantry regiment. It was probably originally raised in Gallia Aquitania in the reign of founder-emperor Augustus after the revolt of the Aquitani was suppressed in 26 BC. Unlike most Gauls, the Aquitani were not Celtic-speaking but spoke Aquitanian, a now extinct non Indo-European language closely related to Basque.

There is scholarly controversy about whether there were one or two infantry cohortes called I Aquitanorum. This is because a regiment of that name is repeatedly attested both in Germania Superior and Britannia. Some see them as two separate units, one of which carried the title 'Veterana' and was permanently based in Germania Sup., the other in Britannia. Others consider it more likely there was a single unit, which alternated between the two provinces, although this was unusual for auxiliary regiments. One view is supported by the fact that none of the British inscriptions carry the title veterana, whereas several of the German ones do, and so appears more likely.

The regiment was initially sent to the Danubian region, where it presumably saw action in the conquest of the Pannonii in 9-6 BC. It first appears in a datable epigraphic record in 74 AD, when it was stationed in Germania Superior (Pfalz/Alsace). It remained there until at least the early 3rd c., when it is attested by a votive altar dedicated in 213-6AD. The following Roman forts have yielded inscriptions attesting the regiment: Arnsburg, Butzbach, Friedburg, Kleestadt, Saalburg and Stockstadt. The latter has the only datable inscription, 213-6AD.

The names of several praefecti (regimental commanders) are preserved, of which two have discernible origins: I. Rufus Papirianus Sentius Gemellus from Berytos (Beirut, Lebanon) and L. Caecilius Caecilianus from Thaenae (Sfax, Tunisia), both undatable. A pedes (common foot soldier) is recorded from Ancyra (Ankara, Turkey) and a Thracian eques (cavalryman).

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Cohors III Alpinorum

The Alpine regiments of the Roman army are those auxiliary units that were originally raised in the Alpine provinces of the Roman Empire: Tres Alpes, Raetia, Taurini, Noricum and others. All these regions were inhabited by predominantly Celtic-speaking tribes. They were annexed, or at least occupied, by the emperor Augustus' forces in the period 16-14 BC.

As would be expected from mountain people, the Alpine provinces supplied predominantly infantry. Only one Alpine cavalry ala is recorded. About 26 Alpine regiments were raised in the Julio-Claudian period, the great majority under Augustus or his successor Tiberius (i.e. before AD 37). Of these, 6 regiments disappeared, either destroyed in action or disbanded by AD 68. A further 2 regiments were raised by Vespasian (ruled 69-96). These and the 20 surviving Julio-Claudian units are recorded at least until the mid 2nd century, but by that time only around a quarter were still based in the Alpine provinces or in neighbouring Germania Superior (Upper Rhine area). The rest were scattered all over the empire and would probably have long since lost their ethnic Alpine identity through local recruitment.

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Cohors I Batavorum c.R.

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionnaires. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

Though Germanic cavalry was first employed by Caesar on his campaigns in Gaul, the first use of Germanic infantry by Rome is recorded by Tacitus in his Annales; the descriptions of Germanicus Caesars' campaign in Germania Magna between 14 and 16 AD. The campaign was being fought to re-establish Roman control over the Rhine frontier after the loss of Germania Magna following the annihilation of Varus' three legions in 9 AD, in what was called by the shocked Romans the "Clades Variana" - Varus' Disaster. A German noble named Arminius was the architect of Varus' defeat, having united several Germanic tribes against the Romans. But during the course of the campaign, the Batavians, under their chieftain Chariovalda, and later in the campaign, the Chauci, fought alongside the Romans against the coalition led by Arminius' Cherusci.

The Batavians were a tribe that were originally part of the Chatti tribe, but moved westwards after a tribal dispute, and settled between the rivers Waal and Rhine. They were known for their excellent discipline, and were, conforming to the Roman stereotype of Germanic troops, tall and fair- or red-haired, but their most famous skill was their ability, whether mounted or on foot, to cross rivers whilst fully equipped with arms and armour. Within thirty years of Germanicus' campaign, the Batavians and other Germanic tribes west of the Rhine were supplying troops to the Roman army, in the form of cohorts of infantry and cavalry ala. Large numbers of these troops were gathered in northern Gaul, along with four legions and numerous auxiliaries from Gaul, Belgium, and other parts of the Empire, for the Emperor Claudius' invasion of Britannia in 43 AD. The Batavians, despite their small population, provided eight auxiliary cohorts, a cavalry ala, and had, since the time of Augustus, constituted the German Guard, who provided part of the Imperial Bodyguard. This was a direct emulation of Julius Caesar's bodyguard of Germanic horsemen. As a result, the Batavians were exempt from taxes - the only tithes they paid the Empire were in the form of manpower. Uniquely, the Batavians were led by their own noblemen, who were given Equestrian status and the rank of Praefectus by the Romans, and their unique skills were put to good use during the invasion, such as at the Battle of the Medway in south-east Britain in 43 AD, as described by Cassius Dio:

"...The barbarians thought the Romans would not be able to cross [the River Medway] without a bridge, and as a result had pitched camp in a rather careless fashion on the opposite bank. Plautius, however, sent across some Celts who were practised in swimming with ease fully armed across even the fastest of rivers. These fell unexpectedly on the enemy..."

In AD 60, the Roman general Suetonius Paulinus, determined to break the power of the Druids, attacked the Isle of Anglesey, just off the coast of North Wales (known to the Romans as Insula Mona - hence the modern Welsh name, 'Ynys Môn'). The druids had fled to Anglesey following the Roman invasion, and were believed to lead the resistance to Roman rule from the island, which was also held to be sacred to the Druidic cult. Tacitus references the Batavians cavalry in his description of the attack on the island:

"...[Suetonius Paulinus] therefore prepared to attack the island of Mona which had a powerful population and was a refuge for fugitives. He built flat-bottomed vessels to cope with the shallows, and uncertain depths of the sea. Thus the infantry crossed, while the cavalry followed by fording, or, where the water was deep, swam by the side of their horses."

When, in 64 AD, Legio XIV Gemina was withdrawn to the continent, it is thought that the Batavians came with them. It seems that at least some of the Batavians had fought alongside Legio XIV Gemina at the Battle of Wattling Street, providing flanking troops for the legionary battle-line. The Batavians were then stationed in Germania Inferior, the province which included their homeland. This was to prove quite an oversight for the Romans.

Five years after their withdrawal, the Roman Empire was in turmoil, as the civil wars marking the "Year of the Four Emperors" wracked the Empire. The Emperor Nero, disowned by the Senate and Praetorian Guard, took his own life, and numerous Generals around the Empire had declared themselves Emperor. Desperate for troops, the successive Emperors attempted to recruit ever more Batavian troops into their armies, often using blackmail in an attempt to secure more recruits. Eventually, the position of the Batavi became intolerable. In 69 AD, Gaius Julius Civilis, Prince of Batavi and a Roman citizen, was in charge of Batavian troops on the Rhine. He decided to launch a rebellion, ostensibly siding with Vespasian, who had the support of nearly all the legions to the east of Italy, and was on his way to confront the throne's current occupant, Vitellius, whom had been raised to the purple when the legions of the Rhine frontier declared him Imperator. Civilis' revolt would in theory tie up large numbers of troops on the Rhine frontier, and prevent them from going to Vitellius' aid when Vespasian arrived in Italy with legions from Pannonia and the East. However, Civilis real agenda was total independence for Batavia. With the garrison of the Rhine stripped of several of its legions by Vitellius, and with the remainder under-strength, Civilis launched his revolt. The timing was well chosen. Eight cohorts of Batavians had been removed from the Rhine garrison by Vitellius but had now been dismissed by him and they were on their way home. When they heard of Civilis' revolt, they enthusiastically joined their prince.

The revolt initially met with success - the Batavians, along with many thousands of tribal levies from both sides of the Rhine, persuaded the other auxiliaries of the Rhine garrison - mainly Gauls, Belgians and Germans - to side with them. The rebels succeeded in defeating Roman legions - Legiones V Alaudae and XV Primigenia - and driving them back to their base at Castra Vetera, near modern Xanten. They besieged the fortress, and though a Roman relief army arrived, Civilis withdrew and threatened Moguntiacum, the main Roman base in Germania Superior. The Roman relief army hurried there, only to receive the news that their former commander, Vitellius, was dead, and Vespasian was now Emperor. The enraged troops murdered their commanding officer, leaving their army leaderless, and thus unable to coordinate its attacks on the rebels.

The beginning of the year 70 AD saw Civilis once again besieging Castra Vetera. The garrison, still comprised of the under-strength Legiones V Alaudae and XV Primigenia, surrendered, and were allowed to leave, but as they marched away from the fortress, they were ambushed and annihilated. The two remaining legions on the Rhine, Legions I Germanica and XVI Gallica, threw in their lot with the rebels. There was now a real danger that the tribes of Gaul and Germania would break away from the Empire altogether. The rebels had now seized or destroyed almost every fortification on the west bank of the Rhine. The Roman fleet on the Rhine was mainly manned by Batavians, and so it too, was seized.

The new Emperor Vespasian's response was swift. Once the rest of the Empire was firmly under his control, he sent a relative, Quintus Petillius Cerealis, into Gaul at the head of an army of eight legions. Though most of these troops were involved in pacifying the tribes in Gaul and Germania Superior that had revolted, the writing was clearly on the wall for the rebels. The two legions that had defected, I Germanica and XVI Gallica, surrendered. Legio I Germanica was disbanded, and its soldiers were incorporated into Legio VII Gemina. Legio XVI Gallica was disbanded and then reconstituted as Legio XVI Flavia Firma. Though raids were mounted on the Roman army (and the flagship of the army's fleet was stolen by Batavians), the situation was becoming increasingly desperate for the rebels, now mainly confined to the area around Batavia itself. Rome had been militarily preoccupied with the Jewish revolt in Judea from 66 AD onwards, however, by September of 70 AD, the siege of Jerusalem was over, and all that remained to do was conduct mopping up operations. Now, Civilis realised that the full might of the Empire would be focused on him and his rebels. He wisely chose to negotiate.

The negotiations that took place are not recorded, but the Batavians seem to have retained their privileged position - they did not have to pay taxes, and they continued to provide troops for the Roman army. The Batavian units were, however, never concentrated in their homeland again - a large number of them were sent to Britain, other units were sent to the Alpine provinces of Raetia and Noricum. Others were sent to Pannonia and Moesia, and some of these units formed the garrison of Dacia after Trajan's conquest of the kingdom in 106 AD. The Batavian units of the Roman army were nearly all Cohors Milliaria, or "one-thousand strong" - in reality, 800 men strong - and several were Cohors Equitata, or "part-mounted cohorts" - these were normal cohorts with either 480 or 800 men as usual, but with 240 horsemen (comprising eight squadrons or "turmae" of 30 cavalrymen, each led by a decurion) attached if it was a "cohors milliaria", or 120 horsemen (comprising four turmae) if it was not.

There were, of course, cohorts of Germans in the Roman army from tribes other than the Batavians. Apart from the eponymous Cohortes Germanorum, the Cohortes Baetasiorum, Cannanefatium, Cugernorum, Frisiavonum, Mattiacorum, Sugambrorum, Sunucorum, Ubiorum, and Vangionum all bear the name of the tribe from which they were recruited. These units were posted to Britannia, Pannonia, Moesia, and later, Dacia, with one unit, Cohors IV Sugambrorum (recruited from the Sicambri in Germania Inferior), stationed as far away as Mauretania in north-west Africa. Some units, such as Cohors I Batavorum Milliaria, Cohors I Baetasiorum and Cohors I Ulpia Cugernorum, succeeded in gaining Roman citizenship in recognition of their valorous deeds, and consequently the unit gained the title Civium Romanorum.

These troops are crack auxiliaries, easily able to hold their own in battle against almost any enemy thanks to their formidable skill in hand-to hand combat. They are equipped with iron helmets resembling the Imperial Gallic-pattern helmets usually worn by legionnaires, excellent quality scale-mail armour (or lorica-squamata, as the Romans referred to it), large oval "clipeus" shields, javelins, and spears. Their spears make them particularly useful against enemy cavalry, but they are also more than capable of seeing off most enemy infantry that engage them. Despite being armed with spears, their fighting style is similar to that of the legionnaires they fight alongside - they throw their javelins, and then charge into contact, using their shields as weapons almost as much as their swords. Brave and disciplined, these soldiers make an excellent addition to any Roman army.

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**tone** · February 07, 2010, 02:50 PM

CAVALRY

Ala IV Hispanorvm Campagonvm Eqvestrvs

Ala IV Hispanorvm Campagonvm Eqvestrvs was an auxiliary unit of cavalry of Roman imperial army of the type quinquagenaria of cavalry. It was recruited in Hispania, and its name, Hispanorvm, indicates that it was recruited from all the Roman provinces of the Peninsula, unlike other orders of recruitment directed to specific towns.

Although it is not known which province this unit was originally sent to, it seems quite probable that it was destined for the Limes of the low Danube, in one of the two Moesiae regions.

Hispanorvm cavalry regiments were also known to have served in North Africa, to have fought against the Dacians and against the Kingdom of Palmyra, and this unit was mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum as being stationed in Egypt at the time.

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Ala II Pannoniorvm:

This military unit had an important role in the province of Dacia. The ala II Pannoniorvm was a cavalry auxiliary unit, having the size of a quingenaria. Sometimes it bears also the name 'veterana'. One cannot tell precisely when and why this epitheton was added, but it seems that it was mostly ignored. Several times the ala is called Gallorvm et Pannoniorvm too, in different moments and apparently without a rule. No explanation was offered. The early history of the unit is rather unknown. It was founded sometime in the first half of the 1st century A. D., in Pannonia. Mostly consisting of Pannonian provincials, it received gradually more and more Roman citizens as well. In the second half of the century, the unit acted in Syria; later one can meet it at the Danube, in Upper Moesia. This movement was somehow connected to the Dacian war of Domitian.

However, a Greek fragmentary inscription from Madytus (Thracia) brings a different argument; the anonymous praefectus alae mentioned in the text participated in the Dacian war and even received a decoration, before being promoted as commandant of this ala in Syria. Therefore, the transfer of the ala II Pannoniorvm in Upper Moesia must have taken place sometime after 88 AD. The ala II Pannoniorvm also appears in the military diplomas of the province from, 100 and 101 AD.

This ala played an important role in the conquest of Dacia. Its participation in the war between 101-102 A. D. is sure, even if no details are available. As main evidence one can use the promotion to the status of duplarius of the brave vexillarius Ti. Claudius Maximus. During the second Dacian war, a squadron of this unit, led by the further recorded Maximus, chased the Dacian king Decebalus until he committed suicide, and then brought his head to the emperor. The whole ala received a special distinction for bravery as well.

Later, the ala (or some its vexillations) participated in the Parthian war of Trajan. After the closing of peace it must have returned to Dacia, at Gherla. Doubtless it took part in the war against the Sarmatian Iazyges, under the general command of Q. Marcius Turbo; it is enlisted among the military units, which operated releasements of veterans in 119 AD.

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Ala I Sarmatarvm

Cassius Dio (Historiarum Romanorum quae Supersunt LXXI.xvi.2) records that 5,500 Sarmatian cavalry were posted to Britain under the terms of the treaty of AD175. These men would very likely have been split into eleven Cavalry Alae of quingenaria strength (i.e. 500 troopers), or may have been used to provide a cavalry contingent for around twenty-odd under-strength infantry units, thus forming cohors equitatae, or indeed, any combination. It is very unlikely that any were formed into a large cavalry ala milliaria, as these are very rare, there being generally only a single example in any one province, and the only one recorded in Britain was housed in the Stanwix fort on Hadrian's Wall, the Ala Petriana. These cavalry troopers must have been housed in forts scattered throughout northern Britain and Wales; some of which were apparently formed into the Ala Sarmatarum and stationed at the Ribchester fort. The unit is attested only on two undated inscriptions.

As the ala became depleted - through retirement mostly - its numbers were not replenished it seems, and its status changed to that of a numerus 'company' by 222-35, and thence to a lowly cuneus 'wedge' by the end of the fourth century. The tile stamped BSAR found at Catterick, may have connections with this unit in one of its several incarnations. During its entire lifetime the unit was stationed at Ribchester in Britain, and uniquely allowed to change its military classification.

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Ala I Astvrvm

With the end of the Asturian Cantabrian Wars there was movement to integrate these peoples into the Roman armies. Early in the Principality, in the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the auxiliaries of the legions were recruited from Asturias, Cantabria, Galician, Bracaraugustanos, Lusitano, Lugo and to a lesser degree, Arevaci, Celtiberia and Basque. All the units in question had their origin and formation in the first century AD. Ala I Hispanorvm Astvrvm possibly moved to Britain during the reign of Domitian, although the first certain reference is the year 98 during the reign of Trajan. It had its headquarters in the current Bernwell from possibly the year 175 and securely from the year 205 until the end of the Roman occupation of Britain as part of the garrison of Hadrian's Wall, and is mentioned as part of Britain's army in the years 122, 124, 126, 158, 175, 200, 205 and 400.

Ala II Astvrvm was possibly stationed in Pannonia and had a camp in Bremetenacum, the current Ribchester in Lancashire, during the second century. Ala III Astvrvm civivm romanorvm is documented in the year 109 with headquarters in Thamusida, the current Sidi Ali ben Ahmed in Morocco.

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Ala Primae Batavorum Equitata:

Dio Cassius Comments upon Hadrian and the rigorous training that he insisted his troops be tutored in:

"So excellently, indeed, had his soldiery been trained that the cavalry of the Batavians, as they were called, swam the Ister with their arms. Seeing all this, the barbarians stood in terror of the Romans, they employed Hadrian as an arbitrator of their differences". (Dio Cassius Liber LXIX 9.6)

The implication is that the Batavians possessed a unique skill. However, there is a gravestone of a certain Soranus, a trooper in a Batavian milliary cohort. Soranus' epitaph records that in AD118 he, before the Emperor Hadrian, swam the Danube and performed the following feats..

Ille ego Pannoniis quondam notissimus oris\ninter mille viros fortis primusq(ue) Batavos\nHadriano potui qui iudice vasta profundi\naequora Danuvii cunctis transnare sub armis\nemissumq(ue) arcu dum pendet in aere telum\nac redit ex alia fixi fregique sagitta\nquem neque Romanus potuit nec barbarus unquam\nnon iaculo miles non arcu vincere Parthus\nhic situs hic memori saxo mea facta sacravi\nviderit an ne aliquis post me mea facta sequ[a]tur\nexemplo mihi sum primus qui talia gessi

"The man who, once very well known to the ranks in Pannonia, brave and foremost among one thousand Batavians, was able, with Hadrian as judge, to swim the wide waters of the deep Danube in full battle kit. From my bow I fired an arrow, and while it quivered still in the air and was falling back, with a second arrow I hit and broke it. No Roman or foreigner has ever managed to better this feat, no soldier with a javelin, no Parthian with a bow. Here I lie, here I have immortalised my deeds on an ever-mindful stone which will see if anyone after me will rival my deeds. I set a precedent for myself in being the first to achieve such feats".

The Batavians were a notable addition to the forces of the Roman army from the reign of Caesar, until the reign of Romulus Augustulus. They played an important role in the successes of, and supplementation to, the Legions of the Roman army. Our Batavian unit honours these men and perpetuates their fine tradition.

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Ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum Catafractata

The cataphract was widely adopted by the Seleucid Empire, the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great's kingdom who reigned over conquered Persia and Asia minor after his death in 323 BC. The Parthians, who finally wrested control over Persia from the Seleucids Kingdom, were also noted for their reliance upon cataphracts as well as horse archers in battle.

The Romans came to know cataphracts during their frequent wars in the Hellenistic East. During their early encounters, cataphracts remained ineffective against the Roman foot-soldier, being decisively defeated in the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC) and in the battle of Lucullus with Tigran the Great near Tigranocerta in 69 BC. In 38 BC, the able Roman general Publius Ventidius, by making extensively use of slingers whose long range weapons proved very effective, defeated the uphill-storming Parthian armoured cavalry, forcing the Parthians to retreat from all Roman territories occupied since Carrhae.

At the time of Augustus, the Greek geographer Strabo considered cataphracts with horses armour to be typical of Armenian, Albanian, and Midian armies, but, according to Plutarch, they were still held in rather low esteem due to their poor tactical abilities against disciplined infantry as well as against light cavalry. However, the lingering period of exposure to cataphracts at the eastern frontier as well as the growing military pressure of the Sarmatian lance riders on the Danube frontier led to a gradual integration of cataphracts into the Roman army. Thus, although armoured riders were used in the Roman army as early as the 2nd century BC (Polybios, VI, 25, 3), the first recorded deployment and use of cataphracts by the Roman Empire comes in the 2nd Century AD, during the reign of emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD), who created the Ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafractata. A key architect in the process was evidently the Roman emperor Gallienus who created a highly mobile force in response to the multiple threats along the northern and eastern frontier. However, as late as 272 AD, Aurelian's army completely composed of light cavalry defeated Zenobia at the Battle of Immae, proving the continuing importance of mobility on the battle field.

As a result of this lingering period of exposure to cataphracts, by the fourth century the Roman Empire had adopted a number of vexillations of mercenary cataphract cavalry (see the Notitia Dignitatum), such as the Sarmatian Auxiliaries. The Romans deployed both native and mercenary units of cataphracts throughout the Empire, from Asia Minor all the way to Britain, where a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatian cataphracts were posted in the 2nd century by emperor Marcus Aurelius.

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Ala I Thracia Eqvestrvs Victrix Romanorvm

The Roman army possessed many units raised in Thrace, both before and after the creation of the Roman province in A.D. 46. They include both cavalry (alae) and infantry (cohortes), in units of five hundred or (in the case of some cohorts) a thousand strong. Most, if not all, of these units appear to have been formed during the first century A.D... the Roman army was unmethodical in its numbering and naming of units, and every time new Thracian units were raised, they were numbered from cohors (or ala) I upwards... in consequence, there are at least five units which might appear in inscriptions as "ala I Thracum" and at least eleven with the title "cohors I Thracum."

Known units include "ala I Thracum Herculiana" which was attested in Syria in 157, "ala I Augusta Thracum" through "ala III Augusta Thracum" attested in Syria, on the Danube (Pannonia) and in Mauretaina Caesariensis (modern day north Africa, Berber kingdom), "Ala I Thracum Victrix" attested in Pannonia Superior from 133-154, and possibly as late as 163, Ala I Thracum Mauretana, service in Mauretania (probably under Gaius and Claudius); subsequently it is attested in Egypt from 142 or earlier to at least the reign of Severus. Also, "Ala I Thracum veter. sagittariorum", Service in Pannonia and in Mauretania, and "ala I Thracum," attested in Britain in 103 and 124AD.

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Ala Gallorum Atectorigiana

This ala is known to have existed from the time of Augustus or perhaps Caesar, its first record appears in an inscription from Saintes.

Its title is generally believed to have been derived from that of a Gallic notable, Atectorix, whose name was attributed to the Gallic Pictones by A. Holder. Its early history remains uncertain. E. Stein considered it not improbable that it may have been in Germania before its move to Moesia but there is no record of its presence there. A diploma is the earliest indication that the ala was in Moesia inferior although it is attested in a diploma of ca. 152-154 and may also be recorded in diplomas of 145 and 161. Further, there is good epigraphic evidence of its attribution to the province in the later second and early third centuries. A heavily ligatured inscription from Rjahovo (Appiaria), set up by a prefect of the ala to his wife, may imply that its station in the late second or third century was on the Danubian limes west of Transmarisca.

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Ala Gallorum et Thracum Antiana Sagittariorum

Ala Gallorum et Thracum Antiana Sagittariorum was a mounted horse archer unit. It is unclear from the evidence if all sagittarii units contained only archers. Some sagittarii units were equipped in the same way as ordinary alae and cohortes, apart from carrying bows. Also, it would be surprising if ordinary units completely lacked archers, since that would limit their capacity for independent operations. Indeed, some non-sagittarii units are shown employing bows. Most mounted cavalry units employing bows were raised to counter Parthian threats in the east, however there is evidence that they served elsewhere in the Empire. This particular unit was referred to in the 'Notitia Dignitatum' as having served in Syria, Iudaea and Arabia Petraea.

It's generally believed that these units came mostly from Syrian and Thracian origin, but as the name suggests, this unit may well have seen horse archers trained in Gaul as well. Their horses were small and fast, as their purpose was generally to harrass the enemy from a distance...engaging with speed and then swiftly retreating. They would be a poor choice for charges into infantry lines, as they are not equipped or intended for that purpose.

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And finally - some banners:

**Pat89** · February 07, 2010, 02:52 PM

Excellent!!

**Timefool** · February 07, 2010, 02:55 PM

Wow! This looks amazing, and you guys put a lot of work into all the info. Its going to take me a few days to take it all in!

**phobos451** · February 07, 2010, 03:04 PM

awesome!

**Quintus Augustus** · February 07, 2010, 03:05 PM

ING AWESOME!!!

**High Chunker Greens** · February 07, 2010, 03:06 PM

Awesome!

**Anubis88** · February 07, 2010, 03:11 PM

YEY... i watch this page every day, to see this awesome previews before they are announced on the main TW page.... AWESOME!

**LegioFan336** · February 07, 2010, 03:15 PM

Wow everything looks great, its going to take me a while to read all of this haha. Im really going to enjoy the legion preview. Ahh cant wait to play this one

**tone** · February 07, 2010, 03:17 PM

Thanks. Yeah, the legion preview is coming together - so many screenshots to take!!

**Athenogoras** · February 07, 2010, 03:22 PM

Remarkable work!

**LegioFan336** · February 07, 2010, 03:23 PM

The team did an excellent job

**pacco** · February 07, 2010, 03:31 PM

Nice!

**-Joker-** · February 07, 2010, 03:33 PM

Breath taking! I really cant wait for this to be released!

**Cyrus the Virus** · February 07, 2010, 03:43 PM

Well composed.

**Greve Af Göteborg** · February 07, 2010, 03:55 PM

Good read!

I love the historical background of these units.

**saxdude** · February 07, 2010, 04:27 PM

Excelent!!

**hæressiarch** · February 07, 2010, 04:48 PM

very good

**Tesla** · February 07, 2010, 06:01 PM

That's amazing work !

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